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THE

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

ELEVENTH EDITION

FIRST edit

^on, published

in three volumes, 1768— 1771.

SECOND ,

> »»

ten ,

, 1777— 1784.

THIRD ,

i >

eighteen ,

, 1788— 1797.

FOURTH ,

i >

twenty ,

, 1801 — 1810.

FIFTH ,

j >

twenty ,

, 1815— 1817.

SIXTH ,

i >

twenty ,

, 1823 — 1824.

SEVENTH ,

> >

twenty-one ,

, 1830 — 1842.

EIGHTH ,

9 )

twenty-two ,

, 1853—1860

NINTH ,

J )

twenty-five ,

1875—1889.

TENTH

, ninth editibn and eleven

supplementary volumes,

1902 — 1903.

ELEVENTH ,

, publi

shed

in twenty-nine volume

is, 1910— 1911.

in all countries subscribing to the

Bern Convention

THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS

of the

UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE

THE

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA

DICTIONARY

ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL

INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME II

ANDROS to AUSTRIA

New York

Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

342 Madison Avenue

INITIALS USED IN VOLUME II. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL

CONTRIBUTORS, 1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE

ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.

A. A. B.

Assaying.

A. B. R.

A. C. R* C«

A. C. Sp.

A.F.L.

A. F. P.

A.O.

A. H. S.

A. H.-S.

A.J.L.

At.

A. M. C.

A. S. M.

A.T.

A.W.R.

B.R.

C. At.

C.B.*

CCh.

Askew.

4 Anthropometry.

Andrew Alexander Blair.

Chief Chemist, U.S. Geological Survey and Tenth U.S. Census, 1879-1881.
Member American Philosophical Society. Author of Chemical Analysis of Iron ; &c.

Alfred Barton Rendle, F.R.S., F.L.S., D.Sc.

Keeper of the Department of Botany, British Museum.

Albert Charles Robinson Carter. .
Editor of The Year's Art.

Arthur Coe Spencer, Ph.D.

Geologist to the Geological Survey of the United States.

Arthur Francis Leach, M.A. r

Charity Commissioner since 1906. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, 1874-1881. J Ascham
Formerly Assistant Secretary, Board of Education. Author of English Schools at] '

the Reformation; History of Winchester College; Bradfield College; &c. I

Albert Frederick Pollard, M.A., F.R.Hist.Soc.

Professor of English History in University of London. Fellow of All Souls' College, -
Oxford.

Major Arthur George Frederick Griffiths (d. 1908).

H.M. Inspector of Prisons, 1878-1896. Author of The Chronicles of Newgate;
Secrets of -the Prison House ; &c.

Rev. Archibald Henry Sayce, D.Litt., LL.D., D.D.
See the biographical article: Sayce, A. H.

Sir A. Houtum-Schindler, CLE.

General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak.

Andrew Jackson Lamoureux.

Librarian, College of Agriculture, Cornell University. Editor of the Rio News
(Rio de Janeiro), 1879-1901.

Andrew Lang.

See the biographical article: Lang, Andrew.

Agnes Mary Clerke.

See the biographical article: Clerke, A. M.

Alexander Stuart Murray, LL.D.

See the biographical article: Murray, Alexander Stuart.

Antoine Thomas, D.-es-L.

Professor in the University of Paris. Member of the Institute of France. Director
of Studies at the ficole Pratique des Hautes fitudes. Author of Les Utats pro-
vinciaux de la France centrale sous Charles VII ; &c.

Alexander Wood Renton, M.A., LL.B.

Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the Laws
of England. .

Lord Balcarres, M.P., F.S.A.

Eldest son of the 26th Earl of Crawford. Trustee of National Portrait Gallery.
Hon. Secretary, Society for Protection of Ancient Buildings. Author of Donatello ; &c.

Sir Boverton Redwood, D.Sc, F.R.S. (Edin.), Assoc.Inst.CE., M.Inst.M.E.
Adviser on Petroleum to the Admirajty, the Home Office and the Indian Office.
President, Society Chemical Ind., 1907-1908.

Channing Arnold.

University College, Oxford. Barrister-at-law. Author of The American Egypt.

Charles Bemont, D.-is-L., D.Litt. (Oxon.).
See the biographical article: Bemont, Charles.

Charles Chree, M.A,, D.Sc, LL.D., F.R.S.

Superintendent, Observatory Department, National Physical Laboratory. Formerly
Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. President, Physical Society of London.

■i Angiosperms (in part); Apple.

-j Art Societies.

4 Appalachian Mountains.

j Assur: City ; Assur-Bani-Pal.

-I Ardebil.

Argentina: Geography.
Asuncidn;
Atacama, Desert of.

■I Apparitions.

j Astronomy: History.

A Aqueduct (in part).

\ Aubusson: Town.

J Apportionment;
1 Arbitration.

Art Galleries.

-j Asphalt. ' <

J Australia: Aborigines.

J Annals; Anselme;

\ Arbois de Jubainville; Aulard.

J Atmospheric Electricity;
I Aurora Polaris.

1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume.

C.E1.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

C. P. A.

H.Rd

Pf.

W.*

c. w. w.

D. C. B.

D. F. T.

D. G. H.

Ed. M.

H.*

E.Tn.
E. V. L,

Sir Charles Norton Edgecumbe Eliot, K.C.M.G., C.B., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L.

Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Scholar of Balliol, Oxford, 1881-1885.
Hertford, Boden, Ireland, Craven and Derby Scholar. Fellow of Trinity. Third.
Secretary Embassy at St Petersburg, 1888-1892; Constantinople, 1893-1898.
Commissioner for British East Africa, 1900-1904. Author of Turkey in Europe;
Letters from the Far East.

Charles Francis Atkinson.

Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal '
Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour.

Charles Hercules Read, LL.D. (St Andrews).

Keeper of British and Medieval Antiquities and Ethnography, British Museum. .
President of the Society of Antiquaries of London. Past President of the Anthro-
pological Institute. Author of Antiquities from Benin; &c.

Christian Pfister, D.-es-L.

Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour,
of Etudes sur le r'egne de Robert le Pieux.

Rev. Charles Plummer, M.A.

Fellow of Corpus Christi College, Oxford.
and Times of Alfred the Great; &c.

Asia: History.

Arms and Armour: Firearms;
Army; Artillery.

Author ■

Archaeology.

Antrustion;
Austrasia.

Ford's Lecturer, 1901. Author of Life\ Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.

Argos: The Heraeum.

Ararat;
Armenia;
Asia Minor.

Charles Waldstein, M.A., D.Litt., Ph.D.

Slade Professor of Fine Art, Cambridge. Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. .
Director of the Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge, 1883-1889. Director of the
American Archaeological School at Athens, 1 889-1 893.

Sir Charles William Wilson, K.C.B., K.C.M:G., F.R.S. (1836-1897).

Major-General, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American Boundary
Commission, 1 858-1 862. British Commissioner on the Servian Boundary Com-,
mission. Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, 1 886-1 894. Director-
General of Military Education, 1895-1898. Author of From Korti to Khartum;
Life of Lord Clive; &c.

Demetrius Charles Boulger. f ■

Author of England and Russia in Central Asia; History of China; Life of Gordon -A Antwerp.
India in the igth Century ; History of Belgium ; &c. I

Donald Francis Tovey. f

Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis, comprising The A Aria.
Classical Concerto, The Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. I

David George Hogarth, M.A. r

Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Anlioch; Apamea; Arabgir;
Fellow of the British Academy, Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naukratis, 1899 -j. Asia Minor; Aspendus;
and 1903; Ephesus, 1 904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at a ssus
Athens, 1 897-1 900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. ^ assus.

David Hannay. f Anson, Baron;

Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of the Royal A Antonio Prior Of Crato -
Navy, 1217-1688; Life of Emilio Castelar; &c. I Aranda,' Count of ; Arhiada.

Ernest Barker, M.A.

Fellow and Lecturer of St John's College, Oxford. Formerly Fellow and Tutor of -{ Alllic Council.
Merton College.

Edward Burnett Tylor, F.R.S. , D.C.L. (Oxon.).
See the biographical article : Tylor, E. B.

Right Rev. Edward Cuthbert Butler, O.S.B., D.Litt. (Dubl.).
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath.

Eduard Meyer, D.Litt. (Oxon.).

Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte des
Alterthums; Forschungen zur alten Geschichte; Geschichte des alten Aegyptens; Die
Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstdmme ; &c.

Edmund Gosse, LL.D..

See the biographical article: Gosse, E. W.

Edmund Owen, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc

Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital,
Great Ormond Street. Late Examiner in Surgery at the Universities of Cam-
bridge, Durham and London. Author of A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students.

Ernest Prescot Hill, M.Inst.C.E.

Member of the firm of G. A. Hill & Sons, Civil Engineers, London.

Sir Edwin Ray Lankester, K.C.B., F.R.S., D.Sc (Oxon.) LL.D.

Hon. Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. President of the British Association, 1906.
Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in University College, London,
1874-1890. Linacre Professor of Comparative Anatomy at Oxford, 1891-1898.
Director of the Natural History Departments of the British Museum, 1898-1907.
Vice-President of the Royal Society, 1896. Romanes Lecturer at Oxford, 1905.
Author of Degeneration ; The Advancement of Science; The Kingdom of Man; &c.

Rev. Ethelred Leonard Taunton (d. 1907). f

Author of The English Black Monks of St Benedict; History of the Jesuits in -j Aquaviva, Claodio.
England; &c. I

Edward Verrall Lucas.

Editor of Letters of Charles and Mary Lamb. Author of Life of Charles Lamb.

J Anthropology.

r Anthony, Saint; Augustinian
A Canons; Augustinian
I Hermits; Augustinians.

{Arbaces; Ardashir; Arsaces;
Arses; Artabanus;
Artaphernes; Artaxerxes;
Astyages.

f Asbjornsen and Moe;
I Assonance.

J Aneurysm;
1 Appendicitis.

-j Aqueduct: Modern.

Arachnida;
Arthropods.

I Austen, Jane.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

Vll

P. c. c.

F. G. P

Frederick Cornwallis Conybeare, M.A. D.Th. (Giessen).

Ne.

Mo.

F. W

R.*

G. H. Fo.

G.K.
G. Sn.

G. W. B.

G. W. T.

H.B.

H. Ch.

H. F. G.

H. F. P.
H.F.T.

H. Ha.
H. H. S.

H. M. C.

f Anointing; Armenian Chureh;
Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. < Armenian Language and
Author of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle; Myth, Magie and Morals; &c. Literature; Asceticism.

Frederick Gymer Parsons, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.Anthrop.Inst.

Vice-President Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on
Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for -| Arteries.
Women. Formerly Examiner in the Universities of Cambridge, Aberdeen, London
and Birmingham ; and Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons.

Francis Henry Neville, M.A., F.R.S. ["

Fellow of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Lecturer on Physics and A Atom.
Chemistry. (_

Francis Llewelyn Griffith, M.A., Ph.D. (Leipzig), F.S.A. f .

Reader in Egyptology, Oxford. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and Archaeo- J Anubis; Apis;
logical Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of the Imperial German 1 Assiut; Assuan.
Archaeological Institute. I

Frank R. Cana.

Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union.

Sir Frank T. Marzials, C.B. f

Formerly Accountant-General of the Army. Author of Lives of Victor Hugo ; -i Augier, G. V. E.
Moliere; Dickens; &c. (_

j Ashanti.

Apoplexy.

Asbestos;
Atacamite.

j Argentina : History.

Frederick Walker Mott, F.R.S., M.D.

Physician to Charing Cross Hospital. Pathologist to the London County Asylums.
Fullerian Professor of Physiology at the Royal Institution.

Frederick William Rudler, I.S.O., F.G.S.

Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902.
President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889.

Gilbert Charles Bourne, M.A., F.R.S. , F.L.S., D.Sc. (Oxon.).

Linacre Professor of Comparative Anatomy at Oxford. Fellow of Merton-j Anthozoa.
College, Oxford.

Rev. George Edmundson, M.A., F.R.Hist.S.

Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1909.

George Herbert Carpenter, B.Sc.

Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. President of the
Association of Economic Biologists. Author of Insects: their Structure and Life.

George Herbert Fowler, F.Z.S., F.L.S., Ph.D.

Formerly Berkeley Fellow of Owens College, Manchester, and Assistant Professor
of Zoology at University College, London.

Gustav Kruger, Ph.D.

Professor of Church History, University of Giessen. • Author of Das Papsttum; &c.

Grant Showerman, Ph.D.

Professor of Latin in the University of Wisconsin.
the Gods.

George Willis Botsford, A.M.

Professor in Columbia University, New York.
(1909); &c.

Ant;
Aptera.

Aquarium.

Arius; Athanasius;
Augustine, Saint (of Hippo).

0f\ J

Author of The Great Mother of < Attis,

Author of The Roman Assemblies \ Areopagus.

Rev. Griffithes Wheeler Thatcher, M.A., B.D.

Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and
Old Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford.

'Antara ibn Shaddad;

Arabia : Antiquities, History,
Literature ; Arabian Philo-
sophy (in part) ; A'Sha;

Ash'Arl; Asma'T; Assassin.

Hilary Bauermann, F.G.S. (d. 1909). r

Formerly Lecturer on Metallurgy at the Ordnance College, Woolwich. Author of J Anthracite
A Treatise on the Metallurgy of Iron. [

Hugh Chisholm, M.A.

Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the nth edition of
the Encyclopaedia Britannica; co-editor of the 10th edition.

Hans Friedrich Gadow, F.R.S., Ph.D.

Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge.
Author of Amphibia and Reptiles.

Henry Francis Pelham, LL.D.

See the biographical article: Pelham, H. F.

Rev. Henry Fanshawe Tozer, M.A., F.R.G.S.

Hon. Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Corre-
sponding Member of Historical Society of Greece. Author of Lectures on the Geo-
graphy of Greece ; History of Ancient Geography. Editor of Finlay's History of Greece.

Heber Hart.

Barrister-at-law.

Argyll, Earls and Dukes 0!
(in part) ; Asquith, H. H.

Archaeopteryx.

Augustus.

Attica.

Henry Heathcote Statham, F.R.I.B.A.

Editor of The Builder. Author of Architecture (Modern) for General Readers;
Modern Architecture; &c.

Hector Munro Chadwick, M.A.

FelloTtr and Librarian of Clare College, Cambridge.
Saxon Institutions.

Auctions and Auctioneers.
Architecture: Modem.

Author of Studies on Anglo- J Angli; Anglo-Saxons.

Vlll

N. D

Se.

Sm.

INITIALS AMD HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

I. B. B.

J. A. H.
J. A. R.

J. B. T.

J. Bn.
J. D. B.

J. D. Pr.

C. A.

Sc.

A. H

H.F.

. R.

J. M. M.

J. Mac.

J. P. E.

Henry Newton Dickson, M.A., D.Sc. (Oxon.), F.R.G.S., F.R.S. (Edin.).

Professor of Geography, University College, Reading. Author of ; Elementary
Meteorology; Papers on Oceanography; &c. ;■ ' .

Henri See. , , , .

Professor in the University of Rennes.

Hugh Sheringham.

Angling Editor of The Field (London).

Israel Abrahams, M.A.

Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature, University of ' Cambridge. President,
Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short History of Jewish Litera-
ture; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages.

Isaac Bayley Balfour, F.R.S., M.D. '

King's Botanist in Scotland. Regius Keeper of Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh.
•Professor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh. Regius Professor of
Botany in the University of Glasgow, 1 879-1 884. Sherardian Professor of Botany
in the University of Oxford, 1884-1888.

John Allen Howe, B.Sc.

Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London.

■" Very Rev. Joseph Armitage Robinson, M.A., D.D.

Dean of Westminster. Fellow of the British Academy. Hon. Fellow of Christ's
College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge, and Norrisian
Professor of Divinity. Author of Some Thoughts on the Incarnation ; &c.

Sir John Batty Tuke, M.D., LL.D. (Edin.), D.Sc (Dubl.)

President of the Neurological Society of the United Kingdom. Medical Director
of New Saughton Hall Asylum, Edinburgh. M.P. for the Universities of Edinburgh
and St Andrews, 1900-1910.

John Bilson.

External Examiner in Architecture, University of Manchester. •

James David Bourchier, M.A., F.R.G.S.

Correspondent of The Times in South-Eastern Europe. Commander of the Orders
of Prince Danilo of Montenegro and of the Saviour of Greece, and Officer of the
Order of St Alexander of Bulgaria. '

John Dyneley Prince, Ph.D.

Professor of Semitic Languages, Columbia University, New York. Took part in
the Expedition to Southern Babylonia, 1888-89. Author of A Critical Commentary
on the Book of Daniel; Assyrian Primer.

John George Clark Anderson, M.A. . , ■

Student, Censor and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1896.
Formerly Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Joint-author of Studica Pontica,

Sir Joshua Girling Fitch. ,

See the biographical article: Fitch, Sir Joshua G.

Atlantic Ocean.

Anne of Brittany.

1.1

I Angling.

'Asher Ben Jehiel.

Angiosperms (in part).

J~ Archean System;
\ Arenig Group.

1 Aristides, Apology of.

< Aphasia.

f Architecture : Romanesque and
[ Gothic, in England. ., i

J Athens;
1 Athos.

Assur (Biblical).

■1 Angora.

{

Arnold, Matthew (in part%

Joseph G. Horner, A.M.I.Mech.E.

Author 6f Plating and Boiler Making ; &c.

J Annealing.

Sir James George Scott, K.C.I.E.

Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States. Author of Burma, a J Arakan.
Handbook ; The Upper Burma Gazetteer ; &c.

John Henry Arthur Hart, M.A.

Fellow, Lecturer and Librarian of St John's College, Cambridge.

John Henry Freese, M.A.

Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge.

John Horace Round, M.A., LL.D. (Edin.).

Author of Feudal England ; Peerage and Pedigree ; &c.

John Holland Rose, M.A., Litt.D. f

Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge University Local Lectures I . 1

Syndicate. Author of Life of Napoleon I; Napoleonic Studies; The Development of \ AU S ereau -
the European Nations; The Life of Pitt; Chapters in the Cambridge Modern History. '["

J" Arehelaus, King of Judaea;
\Asmoneus; Assideans.
J Annalists; Aphrodite;; Apollo;
\ Artemis; Athena.

-j Arundel, Earldom of.

Jules Isaac. ,

Professor of History at the Lycee of Lyons.

Miss Jessie L. Weston.

Author of Arthurian Romances.

John Malcolm Mitchell.

Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London
College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece.

James Macqueen.

Member and Fellow of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons." Professor of
Surgery at the Royal Veterinary College, London. Examiner for the Fellowship
Diploma of the R.C.V.S. Editor, of Fleming's Operative Veterinary Surgery (2nd
edition); Dun's Veterinary Medicines (10th edition); and Neumann's Parasites and
Parasitic Diseases of the Domesticated Animals (2nd edition).

Jean Paul Hippolyte Emmanuel Adhemar Esmein.

Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion of Honour.
Member of the Institute of France. Author of Cours eWnentaire d'histoire du~
droit franqais; &c.

4 Anne of France.

/Arthur (King);

\ Arthurian Legend.
Aqueduct: Ancient and ''■ -^
M edieval ; Aquinas, Thomas
(in part); Archon; Arnte'-
and Armour: Ancient.

Anthrax.

Appanage.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

J. S. B.

J. S. F.

J. Si.*

J. V. B.

J. W. G.
J. W. He.

K.S.
L. H.*

L. J. S.

L. M. Br.
L.W.

M.6.

M. H. C.

M. J. De G.
M. Ja.

M. L. H.
M. N. T.

M. 0. B. C.

M. P.*
N.M.

H. W. T.

Jacob; Samuel Ballin.

Founder and Hon. Sec. of the National Institution of Apprenticeship, London.

John Smith Flett, D.Sc, F.G.S. f

Peirographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in Edin- J
burgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby I
Medallist of the Geological Society of London. L

Rev. James Sibree.

Author of Madagascar and its People; &c.

James Vernon Bartlet, M.A., D.D. (St Andrews).

Professor of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford.
Age; &c.

John Walter Gregory, F.R.S., D.Sc.

Professor of Geology, University of Glasgow.
Mineralogy, University of Melbourne, 1900-1904.
Australia; Australasia.

{

Author of The Apostolic <

Professor of Geology and j
Author of The Dead Heart of j

Apprenticeship.

Aplite.

Antananarivo.

Apostle;
Apostolic Fathers.

Australia: Physical
Geography.

James Wycliffe Headlam, M.A. f

Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education. Formerly J

Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Greek and Ancient History at ") Arnim, Count.

Queea's College, London. Author of Bismarck and the Foundation of the German

. Empire ; &c.

Kathleen Schlesinger.

Author of The Instruments of the Orchestra.

Louis Halfhen, D.-es-L.

Lecturer on Medieval History at the University of Bordeaux.
• of the Ecole des Chartes, Paris.

' {

Formerly Secretary -s

Leonard James Spencer, M.A., F.G.S.

Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex
College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Mineralogical Magazine.

Louis Maurice Brandin, M.A.

Fielden Professor of French and of Romance Philology in the University of London. "

Formerly President of

Arghoul; Asor; Aulos.

Anjou.

Anhydrite; Ankerite;
Annabergite; Anorthite;
Apatite; Apophyllite;
Aragonite; Argentite;
Argyrodite; Augite.

Anglo-Norman Literature.
Anti-Semitism.

Anthim the Iberian.

Lucien, Wolf.

Vice-President of the Jewish Historical Society of England,
the Society. Joint editor of the Btbliotheca Anglo-Judaica.

Moses GAster.

Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic communities of England. Vice-President, Zionist
Congress, 1898, 1899,1 1900. Ilchester Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and
Byzantine Literature, 1886 and 1891. President, Folklore Society of England."
Vice-President, Anglo-Jewish Association. Author of History of Rumanian
Popular Literature ; A New Hebrew Fragment of Ben-Sira ; The Hebrew Version of
Sectitum Secrelorum of Aristotle:

Montague Hughes Crackanthorpe, K.C., D.C.L. f

President of the Eugenics Education Society. Formerly Member of the General J Arbitration, International.
Council of the Bar and Council of Legal Education. Late Chairman, Incorporated
Council of Law Reporting. Honorary Fellow St John's College, Oxford. I

MichAel Jan de Goeje.

See the biographical article : Goeje, Michael Jan de.

Morris JastrOW, Ph.D. (Leipzig).

, Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania.
of the Babylonians and Assyrians; &c.

Lady Huggins.

See the biographical article: Huggins, Sir William.

Marcus Niebuhr Tod, M.A. fAnoiia. i^hM.mtic

Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy. A . p .' 8 ' Arcnmamus,
Joint author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum. I Anstodemus; Anstomenes.

-j Arabia: Literature (in part).

Author of Religion

J Anu; Assur (God) ;
■(_ Astrology.

{

Armilla; Astrolabe.

Maximilian Otto Bismarck Caspari, M.A.

Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Birming-
ham University, 1905-1908. Author of chapters on Greek History in The Year's'
Work in Classical Studies.

f Aratus of Sicyon; Arcadia;
Argos: History;
Aristides the Just;
Athens (in part).

Leon Jacques Maxime Prinet.

Formerly Archivist Jo the French National Archives,
of France (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences).

Auxiliary to the Instituted Aumale, Due d\

Norman McLean, M.A. r

Fellow, Lecturer and Librarian of Christ's College, Cambridge. University Lecturer J a-i,.--^-
in Aramaic. Examiner for the Oriental Languages Tripos and the Theological ") Apnraaws.
Tripos at Cambridge. [

Northcote Whitbridge Thomas, M.A. f Animal- Worship*

Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the J . . .
Societe d'Anthropologie de Paris. Author of Thought Transference; Kinship and~\ Animism.
Marriage in Australia; &c. [_

Ba.

Br.

A. K

CM.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

Oswald Barron, F.S. A. f Arms and Armour-

Editor of The Ancestor, 1902-1905. Hon. Genealogist to Standing Council of -i * rms *. Armour «
Honourable Society of Baronetage. I English.

Oscar Briliant. \ Austria: Statistics.

Paul Daniel Alphandery. , , f , ._

Professor of the History of Dogma, Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Sorbonne, J ApostOllClJ
Paris. Author of Les Idees morales chez les heterodoxes latines au debut du XIII' j Arnold Of Brescia.

siede. I

Prince Peter Alexeivitch Kropotkin. J Aral* Astrakhan.

See the biographical article: Kropotkin, Prince Peter A. I '

Annelida.

Peter Chalmers Mitchell, F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc, LL.D.

Secretary to the Zoological Society of London from 1903. University Demon- Animal'

strator in Comparative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, - '

1888-1891. Lecturer on Biology at Charing Cross Hospital, 1892-1894; at London

Hospital, 1894. Examiner in Biology to the Royal College of Physicians, 1892-

1896,1901-1903. Examiner in Zoology to the University of London, 1903.; r ■ ' "

Anglesey, 1st Earl of;

Anne, Queen;

Anne of Cleves;
P. C. Y Philip Chesney Yorke, M.A. -\ Anne of Denmark;

Magdalen College, Oxford. Antrjmj lgt Marquess „,.

P. G. Percy Gardner, Litt.D., LL.D

Argyll, Earls and Dukes of;
Arlington, Earl of.

:y Gardner, Litt.D., LL.D. f .

See the biographical article: Gardner, Percy. \ Apelles.

P. Gi. Peter Giles, M.A., Litt.D., LL.D. f , . .

Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University -{ Aryan.
Reader in Comparative Philology. Author of Manual of Comparative Philology. I

P. La. Philip Lake, M.A., F.G.S. fAoennines-

Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly J V . „ .'
of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian 1 Asia: Geology; ,..

TrUobites. Translator and editor of Kayser's Comparative Geology. I Austria: Geology.

P. Vi. Paul Vinogradoff, D.C.L. (Oxford), LL.D. (Cambridge and Harvard). f

Corpus Professor of Jurisprudence in the University of Oxford. Fellow of the J Anglo-Saxdn Law. '

British Academy. Honorary Professor of History in the University of Moscow. |
Author of Villainage in England; English Society in the nth Century; Set. L

The Right Hon. Lord Rayleigh. -(Argon. ■'"'

See the biographical article: Rayleigh, 3RD Baron. , I

Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister, M.A., F.S. A. /Ascalon.

Director of Excavations for the Palestine Exploration Fund. \

Colonel Robert Alexander Wahab, CM.G-, CLE. f

Served in the Afghan War, 1878-1880; with the Hazara Expeditions, 1888 and J Arabia: Modem History;

1891; with the Tirah Expeditionary Force, 1897-1898, &c. Commissioner for] Asir.

the Aden Boundary Delimitation. L ' ' ■;;

Sir Richard Claverhouse Jebb, LL.D., D.C.L. J . . , .

See the biographical article: Jebb, Sir Richard C. ' l AHStopnaneS.

Richard Garnett, LL.D. f . . ,.

See the biographical article: Garnett, Richard. -^Anthology; Apot(»eofflS.

Rev. Robert Henry Charles, M.A., D.D., Litt.D. (Oxon.). r

Grinfield Lecturer and Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Oxford. Fellow of the British J Apocalyptic Literature^
Academy. Professor of Biblical Greek at Trinity College, Dublin, 1 898-1906. ] Apocryphal Literature.
Author of Critical History of a Future Life ; &c. I

Reginald Innes Pocock, F.Z.S., F.L.S. r . . » •

Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. ~\ AnWioB; Aphides. ■'■ -■ •

Ronald John McNeill, M.A. r

Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly Editor of the St James's Gazette (London). 4 Australia: Recent LegislatiOK.

Richard Lydekker, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. r

Author of Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British Museum;) Antelope; Arsinoitherium;
The Deer of all Lands; &c. | Artiodaetyla; Aurpchs. ,

Rev. Robert Mackintosh, M.A., D.D. J Anthropomorphism; Apolo-

Professor at Lancashire Independent College, Manchester. ^ getics; Apotheosis(t« />ar/).

Robert Nisbet Bain (d. 1909). f Anne, Empress of Russia;

Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: the
Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The Firstjiomanovs, -
1613 to 1725; Slavonic Europe : the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469
to 1796; &c.

S. M

Ma.

Apraksin, T. M.;
Arakcheev, A. A., Count;
Arany, Janos;
Armielt, G. M., Count. <

R. N. W. Ralph Nicholson Wornum (1812-1877).

Keeper of the National Gallery, 1854-1877. Author of The Epochs of Painting; &c. -j Arabesque.

R. P. S. R. Phene Spiers, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. fApse;

Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past. Arcade*
President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College,^ . . . '
London. Corresponding Membej of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's Arcn;
History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c. . I Architecture.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

R, Po.

S.C

Tr.

A.C

S.C.
S.N.
STC.
Sw.

T. A. C.

r. a. i.

T. As.

T.Ba.

T.Ca.

H.*

T.L.

T. W

-D.

Rene Poupardin, D.-es-L.

Secretary of the Ecole des Chartes. Honorary Librarian at the Bibliotheque ~j Aries, Kingdom of.
Nationale, Paris.

Lieut.-Gen. Sir Richard Strachey, R.E., G.C.S.I., LL.D., F.R.S.
See the biographical article: Strachey, Sir R.

f Asia: Climate, Flora and
\ Fauna.

Robert Seymour Conway, M.A., D.Litt. (Cantab.). f

Professor of Latin in the University of Manchester. Formerly Professor of Latin J Apulia: Archaeology;

in University College, Cardiff.
Author of The Italic Dialects.

Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. | Aricini; Aurunci.

Roland Tsuslove, M.A.

Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Worcester College, Oxford,
of Christ Church, Oxford.

Formerly Scholar

Aries.

Ark;
Asa;
Asher;
Astarte.

Art.

Stanley Arthur Cook, M.A.

Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Formerly Fellow and Lecturer in Hebrew
and Syriac, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew and
Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908; Council of Royal Asiatic Society,"
1904-1905. Author of Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions; The Laws of Moses and
Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient
Palestine; &c.

Sidney Colvtn, M.A., D.Litt.

See the biographical article : Colvin, Sidney.

Simon Newcomb, LL.D., D.Sc, D.CL. (Oxon.).
See the biographical article: Newcomb, Simon.

Viscount St Cyres.

See the biographical article: Iddesleigh, ist Earl of. L

The Right Hon. Lord Swaythling (Sir Samuel Montagu). [

M.P. for Whitechapel, 1885-1900. Founder of the firm of Samuel Montagu & Co., "j Arbitrage.
Bankers, London. I

Timothy Augustine Coghlan, I.S.O. f

Agent-General for New South Wales. President of Australasian Association for the J Australia.
Advancement of Science (Economics and Statistics), 1902. Author of The Seven |
Colonies of Australia; Statistical Account of Australia and New Zealand. I

Thomas Allan Ingram, M.A., LL.D.
Trinity College, Dublin.

f Astronomy: Descriptive-
X Astrophysics.

4 Arnauld : Family.

{

Thomas Ashby, M.A., D.Litt. (Oxon.).

Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of
Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Author of numerous articles in the -
Papers of the British School at Rome; The Classical Topography of the Roman
Campagna; &c.

Assignats.

Antium; Appia Via;

Apulia: History;

Aqueduct: Roman;

Aquileia; Aquino;

Ardea; Arezzo;

Ariano di Puglia; Aricia;

Ariminum; Arpi; Arpino;

Arretium; Ascoli Piceno;

Asisium; Assisi; Astura;

Ateste; Aufidena;

Augusta (Sicily);

Augusta Bagiennorum;

Augusta Praetoria Salassorum*

Aurelia, Via.

Angary;

Annexation.

Asylum, Right of.

Aristotle.

Sir Thomas Barclay, M.P.

Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme Council of ^
the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Author of Problems of*
International Practice and Diplomacy; &c. M.P. for Blackburn, 1910.

Thomas Case, M.A.

President of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Formerly Waynflete Professor of Moral •
and Metaphysical Philosophy at Oxford. Author of Physical Realism; &c.

Thomas Hodgkin, LL.D., D.Litt.

See the biographical article: Hodgkin, T.

Col. Sir Thomas Hungerford Holdich, K.C.M.G., K.C.I. E., D.Sc, F.R.G.S. j Asia: Geography and
Superintendent, Frontier Surveys, India, 1892-1898. Author of The Indian^ Ethnology.
Borderland; The Countries of the King's Award; &c.

Attila.

Sir Thomas Little Heath, K.C.B.,

Assistant Secretary to the Treasury.

D Sc (Cantab ) f Anthemius ;

Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. ] A P ollonius 0* Perga;

[ Archimedes.
Rev. Thomas Martin Lindsay, LL.D., D.D. r

Principal of the United Free Church College, Glasgow. Formerly Assistant to the J A nl] ;_ a - Thnmae
Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Author of 1 A Q ulnas > momas.
History of the Reformation; Life of Luther; &c. [

Walter Theodore Watts-Dunton -f Arnold, Matthew.

See the biographical article : Watts-Dunton, W. T. [_

T. W. Rhys Davids, M.A., Ph.D., LL.D. f

Professor of Comparative Religion in the University of Manchester. President of J Agolsa.
the Pali Text Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian ] •
of Royal Asiatic Society, 18.85-1902. Author of Buddhism; &c. I

Xll

W» A* Be C

W. A. P.

W. Bo.

W. Cr.
W. E. Co.

W. E. E.

W. F. C.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

Sh.

Di.

Ma.

W. R. L.

W.W.
W. W. F.*

W. W. R.*

Rev. William Augustus Brevoort Coolidge, M.A.,F.R.G.S., Hon. Ph.D. (Bern).
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's
College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du haut dauphine; The Range of*
the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in
History; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1889; &c.

Walter Alison Phillips, M.A.

Principal Assistant Editor of the nth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. .
Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College, Oxford, and Senior Scholar of St John's
College. Author of Modern Europe ; &c.

Annecy;
Antibes;
Appenzell;
Arnaud, Henri.

Archbishop;
Archdeacon.

WlLHELM BOUSSET, D.THEOL.

Professor of New Testament Exegesis in the University of Gottingen.
Das We sen der Religion; The Antichrist Legend; &c.

Walter Crane.

See the biographical article: Crane, Walter.

Right Rev. William Edward Collins, D.D., Bishop of Gibraltar
Formerly Professor of Ecclesiastical History, King's College, London.

Author of j Antichrist.

f Arts and Crafts;
I Art Teaching.

istical History, Kings College, London. Lecturer, J « , .. . „ ... ,.
St John's and Selwyn Colleges, Cambridge. Author of The Beginnings of English 1 Apostolical Constitutions.
Christianity. |_

Major William Egerton Edwards. f

Captain and Brevet Major, Royal Field Artillery. Inspector, Inspection Staff, Wool- J Armour Plates
wich Arsenal. Lecturer on Armour and Explosives at the Royal Naval War 1 ridw».

College, Greenwich, 1904-1909. I

William Feilden Craies, M.A. f

Barrister-at-law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's College, London. J Anneal
Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (23rd edition). Author of Craies on Statute 1 "PP eal *
Law. L

William Fleetwood Sheppard, M.A., D.Sc.

Senior Examiner under the Board of Education. Senior Wrangler, 18
Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.

William Henry Bennett, M.A., D.D., D.Litt. (Cantab.). f

Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in New and Hackney Colleges, London. J
Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Lecturer in Hebrew at Firth j
College, Sheffield. Author of Religion of the Post-Exilic Prophets; &c. I

William Henry Dines, F.R.S. -j

William Justice Ford, M.A. (d. 1904).

Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Cambridge. Head Master of Leamington
College.

Sir William Markby, K.C.I.E., D.C.L. J

See the biographical article: Markby, Sir W. \

William Michael Rossetti. f

See the biographical article: Rossetti, Dante Gabriel. 1

Hon. William Pember Reeves.

Director, London School of Economics. Agent-General and High Commissioner
for New Zealand, 1896-1909. Author of A History of New Zealand.

W. R. Lethaby, F.S.A. f

Principal of the Central School of Arts and Crafts under the London County -\
Council. Author of A rchitecture, Mysticism and Myth ; &c. L

William Wallace, M.A. f

See the biographical article: Wallace, William (d. 1897). \

William Warde Fowler, M.A. f

Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Sub-Rector, 1881-1904. Gifford Lecturer, j
Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of The City-State of the Greeks and Romans; j
The Roman Festivals of the Republican Period ; &c. I

William Walker Rockwell, Lie. Theol.

Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York.

Formerly -j Arithmetic.

Angel; Atonement.

Anemometer.

Archery.

Austin, John.

Angelico, Fra.

Atkinson, Sir Henry Albert.

Architecture: Romanesque
and Gothic in France.

Arabian Philosophy {in part).

Anna Perenna;
Argei.

Antioeh, Synods of;
Aries, Synod of;
Augsburg, Confession of.

PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES

Anglican Communion.
Angola.
Annuity.
Anselm.
Antimony.
Apothecary.
Arabs.

Arbitration and Concilia-
tion in Labour Disputes.

Argenson: Family.

Ariosto.

Arizona.

Arkansas.

Arsenic.

Arthur, Chester Alan.

Art Sales.

Arundel, Earls of.

Arya Samaj.

Asparagus.

Aspern-Essling.

Assam.

Assembly.

Assets.

Assize.

Association of Ideas.

Asthma.

Athletic Sports.

Atholl, Earls and Dukes

of.
Atlas Mountains.
Attainder.
Atterbury, Francis.
Audit and Auditor.

Augurs.

Augustan History.
Aungervyle, R.
Aurangzeb.
Aurelian.
Auricula.
Auscultation.
Austerlitz.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME II

ANDROS, SIR EDMUND (1637-1714), English colonial
governor in America, was born in London on the 6th of December
1637, son of Amice Andros, an adherent of Charles I., and the
royal bailiff of the island of Guernsey. He served for a short
time in the army of Prince Henry of Nassau, and in 1660-1662
was gentleman in ordinary to the queen of Bohemia (Elizabeth
Stuart, daughter of James I. of England). He then served
against the Dutch, and in 1672 was commissioned major in what
is said to have been the first English regiment armed with the
bayonet. In 1674 he became, by the appointment of the duke
of York (later James II.), governor of New York and the Jerseys,
though his jurisdiction over the Jerseys was disputed, and until
his recall in 1681 to meet an unfounded charge of dishonesty
and favouritism in the collection of the revenues, he proved
himself to be a capable administrator, whose imperious disposi-
tion, however, rendered him somewhat unpopular among the
colonists. During a visit to England in 1678 he was knighted.
In 1686 he became governor, with Boston as his capital, of the
" Dominion of New England," into which Massachusetts (in-
cluding Maine), Plymouth, Rhode Island, Connecticut and New
Hampshire were consolidated, and in 1688 his jurisdiction was
extended over New York and the Jerseys. But his vexatious
interference with colonial rights and customs aroused the keenest
resentment, and on the 18th of April 1689, soon after news of
the arrival of William, prince of Orange, in England reached
Boston, the colonists deposed and arrested him. In New York
his deputy, Francis Nicholson, was soon afterwards deposed by
Jacob Leisler (q.v.) ; and the inter-colonial union was dissolved.
Andros was sent to England for trial in 1690, but was immediately
released without trial, and from 1692 until 1698 he was governor
of Virginia, but was recalled through the agency of Commissary
James Blair (q.v.), with whom he quarrelled. In 1693-1694
he was also governor of Maryland. From 1704 to 1706 he was
governor of Guernsey. He died in London in February 17 14
and was buried at St Anne's, Soho.

See The Andros Tracts (3 vols., Boston, 1 869-1 872).

ANDROS, or Andro, an island of the Greek archipelago, the
most northerly of the Cyclades, 6 m. S.E. of Euboea, and about
2 m. N. of Tenos; it forms an eparchy in the modern kingdom
of Greece. It is nearly 25 m. long, and its greatest breadth is
10 m. Its surface is for the most part mountainous, with many
fruitful and well-watered valleys. Andros, the capital, on the
east coast, contains about 2000 inhabitants. The ruins of
Palaeopolis, the ancient capital, are on the west coast; the town

possessed a famous temple, dedicated to Bacchus. The island
has about 18,000 inhabitants.

The island in ancient times contained an Ionian population,
perhaps with an admixture of Thracian blood. Though originally
dependent on Eretria, by the 7th century B.C. it had become
sufficiently prosperous to send out several colonies to Chalcidice
(Acanthus, Stageirus, Argilus, Sane). In 480 it supplied ships
to Xerxes and was subsequently harried by the Greek fleet.
Though enrolled in the Delian League it remained disaffected
towards Athens, and in 447 had to be coerced by the settlement of
a cleruchy. In 411 Andros proclaimed its freedom and in 408
withstood an Athenian attack. As a member of the second
Delian League it was again controlled by a garrison and an
archon. In the Hellenistic period Andros was contended for
as a frontier-post by the two naval powers of the Aegean Sea,
Macedonia and Egypt. In S33 it received a Macedonian garrison
from Antipater; in 308 it was freed by Ptolemy I. In the
Chremonidean War (266-263) it passed again to Macedonia after
a battle fought off its shores. In 200 it was captured by a com-
bined Roman, Pergamene and Rhodian fleet, and remained a
possession of Pergamum until the dissolution of that kingdom
in 133 B.C. Before falling under Turkish rule, Andros was from
a.d. 1207 till 1566 governed by the families Zeno and Sommariva
under Venetian protection.

ANDROTION (c. 350 B.C.), Greek orator, and one of the leading
politicians of his time, was a pupil of Isocrates and a con-
temporary of Demosthenes. He is known to us chiefly from the
speech of Demosthenes, in which he was accused of illegality
in proposing the usual honour of a crown to the Council of Five
Hundred at the expiration of its term of office. Androtion filled
several important posts, and during the Social War was appointed
extraordinary commissioner to recover certain arrears of taxes.
Both Demosthenes and Aristotle (Rhet. iii. 4) speak favourably
of his powers as an orator. He is said to have gone into exile
at Megara, and to have composed an Atthis, or annalistic account
of Attica from the earliest times to his own days (Pausanias
vi. 7; x. 8). It is disputed whether the annalist and orator are
identical, but an Androtion who wrote on agriculture is certainly
a different person. Professor Gaetano de Sanctis (in L'Attide
di Androzione e un papiro di Oxyrhynchos, Turin, 1908) attributes
to Androtion, the atthidographer, a 4th-century historical frag-
ment, discovered by B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt (Oxyrhynckus
Papyri, vol. v.). Strong arguments against this view are set
forth by E. M. Walker in the Classical Review, Mayi9o8i

ANDUJAR— ANEMOMETER

ANDUJAR (the anc. Slilurgi), a town of southern Spain,
in the province of Jaen; on the right bank of the river Guadal-
quivir and the Madrid-Cordova railway. Pop. (1900) 16,302.
Andujar is widely known for its porous earthenware jars, called
alcarrazas, which keep water cool in the hottest weather, and are
manufactured from a whitish clay found in the neighbourhood.

ANECDOTE (from av-, privative, and e/cSiSw/ii, to give out
or publish), a word originally meaning something not published.
It has now two distinct significations. The primary one is
something not published, in which sense it has been used to denote
either secret histories — Procopius, e.g., gives this as one of the
titles of his secret history of Justinian's court — or portions of
ancient writers which have remained long in manuscript and
are edited for the first time. Of such anecdola there are many
collections; the earliest was probably L. A. Muratori's, in 1709.
In the more general and popular acceptation of the word,
however, anecdotes are short accounts of detached interesting
particulars. Of such anecdotes the collections are almost infinite;
the best in many respects is that compiled by T. Byerley (d. 1826)
and J. Clinton Robertson (d. 1852), known as the Percy Anecdotes
(1820-1823).

ANEL, DOMINIQUE (1 679-1 730), French surgeon, was born at
Toulouse about 1679. After studying at Montpellier and Paris,
he served as surgeon-major in the French army in Alsace; then
after two years at Vienna he went to Italy and served in the
Austrian army. In 17 10 he was teaching surgery in Rouen,
whence he went to Genoa, and in 17 16 he was practising in
Paris. He died about 1730. He was celebrated for his successful
surgical treatment of fistula lacrymalis, and while at Genoa
invented for use in connexion with the operation the fine-pointed
syringe still known by his name.

ANEMOMETER (from Gr. dvefios, wind, and n'trpov, a
measure), an instrument for measuring either the velocity or the
pressure of the wind. Anemometers may be divided into two
classes, (1) those- that measure the velocity, (2) those that
measure the pressure of the wind, but inasmuch as there is a close
connexion between the pressure and the velocity, a suitable
anemometer of either class will give information about both these
quantities.

Velocity anemometers may again be subdivided into two
classes, (1) those which do not require a wind vane or weather-
cock, (2) those which do. The Robinson anemometer, invented
(1846) by Dr Thomas Romney Robinson, of Armagh Observatory,
is the best-known and most generally used instrument, and belongs
to the first of these. It consists of four hemispherical cups,
mounted one on each end of a pair of horizontal arms, which lie
at right angles to each other and form a cross. A vertical axis
round which the cups turn passes through the centre of the cross;
a train of wheel-work counts up the number of turns which this
axis makes, and from the number of turns made in any given time
the velocity of the wind during that time is calculated. The cups
are placed symmetrically on the end of the arms, and it is easy to
see that the wind always has the hollow of one cup presented to
it ; the back of the cup on the opposite end of the cross also faces
the wind, but the pressure on it is naturally less, and hence a
continual rotation is produced; each cup in turn as it comes
round providing the necessary force. The two great merits of
this anemometer are its simplicity and the absence of a w ind vane ;
on the other hand it is not well adapted to leaving a record on
paper of the actual velocity at any definite instant, and hence it
leaves a short but violent gust unrecorded. Unfortunately, when
Dr Robinson first designed his anemometer, he stated that no
matter what the size'of the cups or the length of the arms, the cups
always moved with one-third of the velocity of the wind. This
result was apparently confirmed by some independent experi-
ments, but it is very far from the truth, for it is now known that
the actual ratio, or factor as it is commonly called, of the velocity
of the wind to that of the cups depends very largely on the
dimensions of the cups and arms, and may have almost any value
between two and a little over three. The result has been that
wind velocities published in many official publications have often
been in error by nearly 50 %.

The other forms of velocity anemometer may be described as
belonging to the windmill type. In the Robinson anemometer
the axis of rotation is vertical, but with this subdivision the axis
of rotation must be parallel to the direction of the wind and
therefore horizontal. Furthermore, since the wind varies in
direction and the axis has to follow its changes, a wind vane or
some other contrivance to fulfil the saft.e purpose must be em-
ployed. This type of instrument is very little used in England,
but seems to be more in favour in France. In cases where the
direction of the air motion is always the same, as in the ventilating
shafts of mines and buildings for instance, these anemometers,
known, however, as air meters, are employed, and give most
satisfactory results.

Anemometers which measure the pressure may be divided into
the plate and tube classes, but the former term must be taken as
including a good many miscellaneous forms. The simplest type
of this form consists of a flat plate, which is usually square or
circular, while a wind vane keeps this exposed normally to the
wind, and the pressure of the wind on its face is balanced by a
spring. The distortion of the spring determines the actual force
which the wind is exerting on the plate, and this is either read off
on a suitable gauge, or leaves a record in the ordinary way by
means of a pen writing on a sheet of paper moved by clockwork.
Instruments of this kind have been in use for a long series of years,
and have recorded pressures up to and even exceeding 60 lb
per sq. ft., but it is now fairly certain that these high values are
erroneous, and due, not to the wind, but to faulty design of
the anemometer.

The fact is that the wind is continually varying in force, and
while the ordinary pressure plate is admirably adapted for
measuring the force of a steady and uniform wind, it is entirely
unsuitable for following the rapid fluctuations of the natural wind.
To make matters worse, the pen which records the motion of the
plate is often connected with it by an extensive system of chains
and levere. A violent gust strikes the plate, which is driven back
and carried by its own momentum far past the position in which
a steady wind of the same force would place it; by the time the
motion has reached the pen it has been greatly exaggerated by
the springiness of the connexion, and not only is the plate itself
driven too far back, but also its position is wrongly recorded by
the pen; the combined errors act the same way, and more than
double the real maximum pressure may be indicated on the chart.

A modification of the ordinary pressure-plate has recently been
designed. In this arrangement a catch is provided so that the
plate being once driven back by the wind cannot return until
released by hand; but the catch does not prevent the plate being
driven back farther by a gust stronger than the last one that
moved it. Examples of these plates are erected on the west coast
of England, where in the winter fierce gales often occur; a pres-
sure of 30 lb per sq. ft. has not been shown by them, and instances
exceeding 20 lb are extremely rare.

Many other modifications have been used and suggested.
Probably a sphere would prove most useful for a pressure
anemometer, since owing to its symmetrical shape it would not
require a weathercock. A small light sphere hanging from the end
of 30 or 40 ft. of fine sewing cotton has been employed to measure
the wind velocity passing over a kite, the tension of the cotton
being recorded, and this plan has given satisfactory results.

Lind's anemometer, which consists simply of a (J tube contain-
ing liquid with one end bent into a horizontal direction to face the
wind, is perhaps the original form from which the tube class of
instrument has sprung. If the wind blows into the mouth of a
tube it causes an increase of pressure inside and also of course an
equal increase in all closed vessels with which the mouth is in air-
tight communication. If it blows horizontally over the open end
of a vertical tube it causes a decrease of pressure, but this fact is
not of any practical use in anemometry, because the magnitude
of the decrease depends on the wind striking the tube exactly
at right angles to its axis, the most trifling departure from the true
direction causing great variations in the magnitude. The pressure
tube anemometer (fig. 1) utilizes the increased pressure in the
open mouth of a straight tube facing the wind, and the decrease

ANEMONE— ANERIO

of pressure caused inside when the wind blows over a ring of small
holes drilled through the metal of a vertical tube which is closed
at the upper end. The pressure differences on which the action
depends are very small, and special means are required to register
them, but in the ordinary form of recording anemometer (fig. 2),
any wind capable of turning the vane which keeps the mouth of
the tube facing the wind is capable of registration.

The great advantage of the tube anemometer lies in the fact
that the exposed part can be mounted on a high pole, and requires
no oiling or attention for years; and the registering part can be
placed in any convenient position, no matter how far from the
external part. Two connecting tubes are required. It might
appear at first sight as though one connexion would serve, but the
differences in pressure on which these instruments depend are so
minute, that the pressure of the air in the room where the record-
ing part is placed has to be considered. Thus if the instrument
depends on the pressure or suction effect alone, and this pressure
or suction is measured against the air pressure in an ordinary
room, in which the doors and windows are carefully closed and a
newspaper is then burnt up the chimney, an effect may be pro-
duced equal to a wind of 10 m. an hour; and the opening of a

I 4

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

window in rough weather, or the opening of a door, may entirely
alter the registration.

The connexion between the velocity and the pressure of the
wind is one that is not yet known with absolute certainty. Many
text-books on engineering give the relation P= -005 v 2 when P is
the pressure in lb per sq. ft. and v the velocity in miles per hour.
The history of this untrue relation is curious. It was given about
the end of the 18th century as based on some experiments, but
with a footnote stating that little reliance could be placed on it.
The statement without the qualifying note was copied from book
to book, and at last received general acceptance. There is no
doubt that under average conditions of atmospheric density, the
.005 should be replaced by -003, for many independent authorities
using different methods have found values very close to this
last figure. It is probable that the wind pressure is not strictly
proportional to the extent of the surface exposed. Pressure plates
are generally of moderate size, from a half or quarter of a sq. ft.
up to two or three sq. ft., are round or square, and for these sizes,
and shapes, and of course for a flat surface, the relation P= .003 1> 2
is fairly correct.

In the tube anemometer also it is really the pressure that is
measured, although the scale is usually graduated as a velocity
scale. In cases where the density of the air is not of average value,
as on a high mountain, or with an exceptionally low barometer
for example, an allowance must be made. Approximately i\%
should be added to the velocity recorded by a tube anemometer
for each 1000 ft. that it stands above sea-level. (W. H. Di.)

ANEMONE, or Wind-Flower (from the Gr. foe/ios, wind), a
genus of the buttercup order (Ranunculaceae), containing about
ninety species in the north and south temperate zones. Anemone
ncmorosa, wood anemone, and A. Pulsatilla, Pasque-flower,
occur in Britain; the latter is found on chalk downsand limestone
pastures in some of the more southern and eastern counties.
The plants are perennial herbs with an underground rootstock,
and radical, more or less deeply cut, leaves. The elongated
flower stem bears one or several, white, red, blue or rarely yellow,
flowers; there is an involucre of three leaflets below each flower.
The fruits often bear long hairy styles which aid their distribution
by the wind. Many of the species are favourite garden plants;
among the best known is Anemone coronaria, often called the
poppy anemone, a tuberous-rooted plant, with parsley-like
divided leaves, and large showy poppy-like blossoms on stalks
of from 6 to 9 in. high; the flowers are of various colours, but the
principal are scarlet, crimson, blue, purple and white. There are
also double-flowered varieties, in which the stamens in the centre
are replaced by a tuft of narrow petals. It is an old garden
favourite, and of the double forms there are named varieties.
They grow best in a loamy soil, enriched with well-rotted manure,
which should be dug in below the tubers. These may be planted
in October, and for succession in January, the autumn-planted
ones being protected by a covering of leaves or short stable
litter. They will flower in May and June, and when the leaves
have ripened should be taken up into a dry room till planting
time. They are easily raised from the seed, and a bed of the
single varieties is a valuable addition to a flower-garden, as it
affords, in a warm situation, an abundance of handsome and
often brilliant spring flowers, almost as early as the snowdrop or
crocus. The genus contains many other lively spring-blooming
plants, of which A. hortensis and A. fulgens have less divided
leaves and splendid rosy-purple or scarlet flowers; they require
similar treatment. Another set is represented by A. Pulsatilla,
the Pasque-flower, whose violet blossoms have the outer surface
hairy; these prefer a calcareous soil. The splendid A. japonica,
and its white variety called Honorine Joubert, the latter especially,
are amongst the finest of autumn-blooming hardy perennials;
they grow well in light soil, and reach 2§ to 3 ft. in height,
blooming continually for several weeks. A group of dwarf
species, represented by the native British A. nemorosa and
A. apennina, are amongst the most beautiful of spring flowers
for planting in woods and shady places.

The genus Hepatica is now generally included in anemone as a
subgenus. The plants are known in gardens as hepaticas, and
are varieties of the common South European A. Hepatica;
they are charming spring-flowering plants with usually blue
flowers.

ANENCLETUS, or Anacletus, second bishop of Rome. Abcut
the 4th century he is treated in the catalogues as two persons —
Anacletus and Cletus. According to the catalogues he occupied
the papal chair for twelve years (c. 77-88).

ANERIO, the name of two brothers, musical composers, very
great Roman masters of 16th-century polyphony. Felice, the
elder, was born about 1560, studied under G. M. Nanino and
succeeded Palestrina in 1594 as composer to the papal chapel.
Several masses and motets of his are printed in Proske's Musica
Divina and other modern anthologies, and it is hardly too much
to say that they are for the most part worthy of Palestrina
himself. The date of his death is conjecturally given as 1630.
His brother, Giovanni Francesco, was born about 1567, and
seems to have died about 1620. The occasional attribution of
some of his numerous compositions to his elder brother is a
pardonable mistake, if we may judge by the works that have been
reprinted. But the statement, which continues to be repeated
in standard works of reference, that " he was one of the first of
Italians to use the quaver and its subdivisions " is incompre-
hensible. Quavers were common pioperty in all musical countries
quite early in the 16th century, and' semiquavers appear in a
madrigal of Palestrina published in 1574. The two brothers are
probably the latest composers who handled 16th-century music
as their mother-language; suffering neither from the temptation

ANET— ANGEL

to indulge even in such mild neologisms as they might have
learnt from the elder brother's master, Nanino, nor from the
necessity of preserving their purity of style by a mortified
negative asceticism. They wrote pure polyphony because they
understood it and loved it, and hence their work lives, as neither
the progressive work of their own day nor the reactionary work
of their imitators could live. The 12-part Stabat Mater in the
seventh volume of Palestrina's complete works has been by some
authorities ascribed to Felice Anerio.

ANET, a town of northern France, in the department of
Eure-et-Loir, situated between the rivers Eure and Vegre,
10 m. N.E. of Dreux by rail. Pop. (1906) 1324. It possesses
the remains of a magnificent castle, built in the middle of the
16th century by Henry II. for Diana of Poitiers. Near it is the
plain of Ivry, where Henry IV. defeated the armies of the League
in 1590.

ANEURIN, or Aneirin, the name of an early 7th-century
British (Welsh) bard, who has been taken by Thomas Stephens
(1821-1875), the editor and translator of Aneurin's principal epic
poem Gododin, for a son of Gildas, the historian. Gododin is an
account of the British defeat (603) by the Saxons at Cattraeth
(identified by Stephens with Dawstane in Liddesdale), where
Aneurin is said to have been taken prisoner; but the poem is
very obscure and is differently interpreted. It was translated
and edited by W. F. Skene in his Four Ancient Books of Wales
(1866), and Stephens' version was published by the Cymmro-
dorion Society in 1888. See Celt: Literature (Welsh).

ANEURYSM, or Aneubism (from Gr. avevpur/xa, a dilata-
tion), a cavity or sac which communicates with the interior of
an artery and contains blood. The walls of the cavity are formed
either of the dilated artery or of the tissues around that vessel.
The dilatation of the artery is due to a local weakness, the result
of disease or injury. The commonest cause is chronic inflamma-
tion of the inner coats of the artery. The breaking of a bottle
or glass in the hand is apt to cut through the outermost coat of
the artery at the wrist (radial) and thus to cause a local weakening
of the tube which is gradually followed by dilatation. Also when
an artery is wounded and the wound in the skin and superficial
structures heals, the blood may escape into the tissues, displacing
them, and by its pressure causing them to condense and form the
sac-wall. The coats of an artery, when diseased, may be torn
by a severe strain, the blood escaping into the condensed tissues
which thus form the aneurysmal sac.

The division of aneurysms into two classes, true and false, is
unsatisfactory. On the face of it, an aneurysm which is false
is not an aneurysm, any more than a false bank-note is legal
tender. A better classification is into spontaneous and traumatic.
The man who has chronic inflammation of a large artery, the
result, for instance, of gout, arduous, straining work, or kidney-
disease, and whose artery yields under cardiac pressure, has a
spontaneous aneurysm; the barman or window-cleaner who has
cut his radial artery, the soldier whose brachial or femoral artery
has been bruised by a rifle bullet or grazed by a bayonet, and the
boy whose naked foot is pierced by a sharp nail, are apt to be
the subjects of traumatic aneurysm. In those aneurysms which
are a saccular bulging on one side of the artery the blood may be
induced to coagulate, or may of itself deposit layer upon layer
of pale clot, until the sac is obliterated. This laminar coagulation
by constant additions gradually fills the aneurysmal cavity and
the pulsation in the sac then ceases; contraction of the sac and
its contents gradually takes place and the aneurysm is cured.
But in those aneurysms which are fusiform dilatations of the
vessel there is but slight chance of such cure, for the blood
sweeps evenly through it without staying to deposit clot or
laminated fibrine.

In the treatment of aneurysm the aim is generally to lower the
blood pressure by absolute rest and moderated diet, but a cure is
rarely effected except by operation, which, fortunately, is now
resorted to more promptly and securely than was previously the
case. Without trying the speculative and dangerous method of
treatment by compression, or the application of an indiarubber
bandage, the surgeon now without loss of time cuts down upon the

artery, and applies an aseptic ligature close above the dilatation.
Experience has shown that this method possesses great advantages,
and that it has none of the disadvantages which were formerly
supposed to attend it. Saccular dilatations of arteries which are
the result of cuts or other injuries are treated by tying the vessel
above and below, and by dissecting out the aneurysm. Pop-
liteal, carotid and other aneurysms, which are not of traumatic
origin, are sometimes dealt with on this plan, which is the old
" Method of Antyllus " with modern aseptic conditions. Speak-
ing generally, if an aneurysm can be dealt with surgically the
sooner that the artery is tied the better. Less heroic measures
are too apt to prove painful, dangerous, ineffectual and dis-
appointing. For aneurysm in the chest or abdomen (which
cannot be dealt with by operation) the treatment may be tried
of injecting a pure solution of gelatine into the loose tissues of
the armpit, so that the gelatine may find its way into the blood
stream and increase the chance of curative coagulation in the
distant aneurysmal sac. (E. O.*)

ANFRACTUOSITY (from Lat. anfracluosus, winding), twisting
and turning, circuitousness; a word usually employed in the
plural to denote winding channels such as occur in the depths
of the sea, mountains, or the fissures {sulci) separating the
convolutions of the brain, or, by analogy, in the mind.

ANGARIA (from 0770730$, the Greek form of a Babylonian
word adopted in Persian for " mounted courier "), a sort of
postal system adopted by the Roman imperial government
from the ancient Persians, among whom, according to Xenophon
(Cyrop. viii. 6; cf. Herodotus viii. 98) it was established by
Cyrus the Great. Couriers on horseback were posted at certain
stages along the chief roads of the empire, for the transmission
of royal despatches by night and day in all weathers. In the
Roman system the supply of horses and their maintenance was
a compulsory duty from which the emperor alone could grant
exemption. The word, which in the 4th century was used for
the heavy transport vehicles of the cursus publicus, and also for
the animals by which they were drawn, came to mean generally
" compulsory service." So angaria, angariare, in medieval
Latin, and the rare English derivatives " angariate," " angaria-
tion/' came to mean any service which was forcibly or unjustly
demanded, and oppression in general.

ANGARY (Lat. jus angariae; Fr. droit d'angarie; Ger.
Angarie; from the Gr. ayyapela, the office of an ayyapos, courier
or messenger), the name given to the right of a belligerent to
seize and apply for the purposes of war (or to prevent the enemy
from doing so) any kind of property on, belligerent territory,
including that which may belong to subjects or citizens of a
neutral state. Art. 53 of the Regulations respecting the Laws
and Customs of War on Land, annexed to the Hague Convention
of 1899 on the same subject, provides that railway plant, land
telegraphs, telephones, steamers and other ships (other than
such as are governed by maritime law), though belonging to
companies or private persons, may be used for military opera-
tions, but " must be restored at the conclusion of peace and
indemnities paid for them." And Art. 54 adds that " the
plant of railways coming from neutral states, whether the
property of those states or of companies or private persons,
shall be sent back to them as soon as possible." These articles
seem to sanction the right of angary against neutral property,
while limiting it as against both belligerent and neutral property.
It may be considered, however, that the right to use implies as
wide a range of contingencies as the " necessity of war " can be
made to cover. (T. Ba.)

ANGEL, a general term denoting a subordinate superhuman
being in monotheistic religions, e.g. Islam, Judaism, Christianity,
and in allied religions, such as Zoroastrianism. In polytheism
the grades of superhuman beings are continuous; but in mono-
theism there is a sharp distinction of kind, as well as degree,
between God on the one hand, and all other superhuman beings
on the other; the latter are the " angels."

1 " Angel " is a transcription of the Gr. 0,776X05, messenger.
O.yye\os in the New Testament, and the corresponding mal'akh
in the Old Testament, sometimes mean " messenger," and

ANGEL

sometimes " angel," and this double sense is duly represented
in the English Versions. " Angel " is also used in the English
Version for "v?* 'Abbir, Ps. lxxviii. 25. (lit. "mighty"), for
d'.jjk 'Elohim, Ps. viii. 5, and for the obscure Jkb* shin' an, in
Ps. lxviii. 17.

In the later development of the religion of Israel, 'Elohim
is almost entirely reserved for the one true God; but in
earlier times 'Elohim (gods), bne 'Elohim, bne Elim (sons of
gods, i.e. members of the class of divine beings) were general
terms for superhuman beings. Hence they came to be used
collectively of superhuman beings, distinct from Yahweh, and
therefore inferior, and ultimately subordinate. 1 So, too, the
angels are styled "holy ones," 2 and "watchers," 3 and are
spoken, of as the " host of heaven" 4 or of " Yahweh." 6 The
'' hosts," n'wyt Sebdoth in the title Yahweh Sebaoth, Lord of
Hosts, were probably at one time identified with the angels. 6 The
New Testament often speaks of "spirits," irvevfiara. 7 In the
earlier periods of the religion of Israel, the doctrine of monotheism
had not been formally stated, so that the idea of " angel " in
the modern sense does not occur, but we find the Mal'akh
Yahweh, Angel of the Lord, or Mal'akh Elohim, Angel of God.
The Mal'akh Yahweh is an appearance or manifestation of
Yahweh in the form of a man, and the term Mal'akh Yahweh is
used interchangeably with Yahweh (cf. Exod. iii. 2, with
iii. 4; xiii. 21 with xiv. 19). Those who see the Mai' akh
Yahweh say they have seen God. 8 The Mal'akh Yahweh (or
Elohim) appears to Abraham, Hagar, Moses, Gideon, &c, and
leads the Israelites in the Pillar of Cloud. 9 The phrase Mal'akh
Yahweh may have been originally a courtly circumlocution for
the Divine King; but it readily became a means of avoiding
crude anthropomorphism, and later on, when the angels were
classified, the Mal'akh Yahweh came to mean an angel of
distinguished rank. 10 The identificaton of the Mal'akh Yahweh
with the Logos, or Second Person of the Trinity, is not indicated
by the references in the Old Testament; but the idea of a Being
partly identified with God, and yet in some sense distinct from
Him, illustrates the tendency of religious thought to distinguish
persons within the unity of the Godhead, and foreshadows the
doctrine of the Trinity, at any rate in some slight degree.

In the earlier literature the Mal'akh Yahweh or Elohim is
almost the only mal'akh (" angel ") mentioned. There are,
however, a few passages which speak of subordinate superhuman
beings other than the Mal'akh Yahweh or Elohim. There are
the cherubim who guard Eden. In Gen. xviii., xix. (J) the
appearance of Yahweh to Abraham and Lot is connected with
three, afterwards two, men or messengers; but possibly in the
original form of the story Yahweh appeared alone. 11 At Bethel,
Jacob sees the angels of God on the ladder, 12 and later on they
appear to him at Mahanaim. 13 In all these cases the angels, like
the Mal'akh Yahweh, are connected with or represent a theo-
phany. Similarly the " man " who wrestles with Jacob at Peniel
is identified with God. 14 In Isaiah vi. the seraphim, superhuman
beings with six wings, appear as the attendants of Yahweh.
Thus the pre-exilic literature, as we now have it, has little to say
about angels or about superhuman beings other than Yahweh
and manifestations of Yahweh; the pre-exilic prophets hardly
mention angels. 15 Nevertheless we may well suppose that the
popular religion of ancient Israel had much to say of super-
human beings other than Yahweh, but that the inspired writers
have mostly suppressed references to them as unedifying.
Moreover such beings were not strictly angels.

I E.g. Gen. vi. 2; Job i. 6; Ps. viii. 5, xxix. 1. 2 Zech. xiv. 5.
3 Dan. iv. 13. 4 Deut. xvii. 3 (?). 5 Josh. v. 14 (?).

6 The identification of the " hosts " with the stars comes to the
same thing; the stars were thought of as closely connected with
angels. It is probable that the " hosts " were also identified with
the armies of Israel.

7 Rev. i. 4. 8 Gen. xxxii. 30; Judges xiii. 22.
9 Exod. iii. 2, xiv. 19. M Zech. i. 11 f.

II Cf. xviii. 1 with xviii. 2, and note change of number in xix. 17.
12 Gen. xxviii. 12, E. 13 Gen. xxxii. 1, E. u Gen. xxxii. 24, 30, J.
15 " An angel " of I Kings xiii. 18 might be the Mal'akh Yahweh,

as in xix. 5, cf. 7, or the passage, at any rate in its present form, may
be exilic or post-exilic.

The doctrine of monotheism was formally expressed in the
period immediately before and during the Exile, in Deuteronomy 16
and Isaiah 17 ; and at the same time we find angels prominent in
Ezekiel who, as a prophet of the Exile, may have been influenced
by the hierarchy of supernatural beings in the Babylonian
religion, and perhaps even by the angelology of Zoroastrianism. 18
Ezekiel gives elaborate discriptions of cherubim 19 ; and in one
of his visions he sees seven angels execute the judgment of God
upon Jerusalem. 20 As in Genesis they are styled " men," mal'akh
for " angel " does not occur in Ezekiel. Somewhat later, in the
visions of Zechariah, angels play a great part; they are some-
times spoken of as " men," sometimes as mal'akh, and the
Mal'akh Yahweh seems to hold a certain primacy among them. 21
Satan also appears to prosecute (so to speak) the High Priest
before the divine tribunal. 22 Similarly in Job the bne Elohim,
sons of God, appear as attendants of God, and amongst them
Satan, still in his r61e of public prosecutor, the defendant being
Job. 23 Occasional references to " angels " occur in the Psalter 24 ;
they appear as ministers of God.

In Ps. lxxviii. 49 the " evil angels " of A. V. conveys a false
impression; it should be "angels of evil," as R.V., i.e. angels
who inflict chastisement as ministers of God.

The seven angels of Ezekiel may be compared with the seven
eyes of Yahweh in Zech. iii. 9, iv. 10. The latter have- been
connected by Ewald and others with the later doctrine of seven
chief angels 25 , parallel to and influenced by the Ameshaspentas
(Amesha Spenta), or seven great spirits of the Persian mythology,
but the connexion is doubtful.

In the Priestly Code, c. 400 B.C., there is no reference to angels
apart from the possible suggestion in the ambiguous plural
in Genesis i. 26.

During the Persian and Greek periods the doctrine of angels
underwent a great development, partly, at any rate, under
foreign influences. In Daniel, c. 160 B.C., angels, usually
spoken of as " men " or " princes," appear as guardians or
champions of the nations; grades are implied, there are " princes "
and " chief " or " great princes "; and the names of some angels
are known, Gabriel, Michael; the latter is pre-eminent 26 , he is
the guardian of Judah. Again in Tobit a leading part is played
by Raphael, " one of the seven holy angels." 27

In Tobit, too, we find the idea of the demon or evil angel.
In the canonical Old Testament angels may inflict suffering
as ministers of God, and Satan may act as accuser or tempter;
but they appear as subordinate to God, fulfilling His will; and
not as morally evil. The statement 28 that God " chargeth His
angels with folly " applies to all angels. In Daniel the princes
or guardian angels of the heathen nations oppose Michael the
guardian angel of Judah. But in Tobit we find Asmodaeus
the evil demon, to irovrjpdv dai/ioviov, who strangles Sarah's
husbands, and also a general reference to " a devil or evil
spirit," irPevfia.' 19 The Fall of the Angels is not properly a
scriptural doctrine, though it is based on Gen. vi. 2, as inter-
preted by the Book of Enoch. It is true that the bne Elohim
of that chapter are subordinate superhuman beings (cf. above),
but they belong to a different order of thought from the angels
of Judaism and of Christian doctrine; and the passage in no
way suggests that the bne Elohim suffered any loss of status
through their act.

The guardian angels of the nations in Daniel probably represehx
the gods of the heathen, and we have there the first step of the
process by which these gods became evil angels, an idea expanded
by Milton in Paradise Lost. The development of i.he doctrine
of an organized hierarchy of angels belongs to the Jewish litera-
ture of the period 200 B.C. to a.d. 100. In Jewish apocalypses
especially, the imagination ran riot on the rank, classes and names
of angels; and such works as the various books of Enoch and

16 Deut. vi. 4. 5. 17 Isaiah xliii. 10 &c.

18 It is not however certain that these doctrines of Zoroastrianism
were developed at so early a date.

19 Ezek. i. x. 20 Ezek. ix. 21 Zech. i. 11 f. 22 Zech. iii. 1.
23 Job i., ii. Cf. 1 Chron. xxi. I. 24 Pss. xci. 11, ciii. 20 &c.

25 Tobit xii. 15; Rev. viii. 2. 26 Dan. viii. 16, x. 13, 20,21.

27 Tob. xii. 15. 2S Job iv. 18. m Tobit iii. 8, 17, vi. 7.

ANGEL— ANGELICO

the Ascension of Isaiah supply much information on this
subject.

In the New Testament angels appear frequently as the
ministers of God and the agents of revelation 1 ; and Our Lord
speaks of angels as fulfilling such functions 2 , implying in one saying
that they neither marry nor are given in marriage. 3 Naturally
angels are most prominent in the Apocalypse. The New Testa-
ment takes little interest in the idea of the angelic hierarchy,
but there are traces of the doctrine. The distinction of good
and bad angels is recognized; we have names, Gabriel 4 , and
the evil angels Abaddon or Apollyon 6 , Beelzebub 6 , and Satan 7 ;
ranks are implied, archangels 8 , principalities and powers 9 ,
thrones and dominions 10 . Angels occur in groups of four or
seven 11 . In Rev. i.-iii. we meet with the "Angels " of the Seven
Churches of Asia Minor. These are probably guardian angels,
standing to the churches in the same relation that the " princes "
in Daniel stand to the nations; practically the " angels " are
personifications of the churches. A less likely view is that the
" angels " are the human representatives of the churches, the
bishops or chief presbyters. There seems, however, no parallel
to such a use of " angel," and it is doubtful whether the mon-
archical government of churches was fully developed when
the Apocalypse was written.

Later Jewish and Christian speculation followed on the lines
of the angelology of the earlier apocalypses; and angels play
an important part in Gnostic systems and in the Jewish Mid-
rashim and the Kabbala. Religious thought about the angels
during the middle ages was much influenced by the theory of the
angelic hierarchy set forth in the De Hierarchia Celesti, written
in the 5th century in the name of Dionysius the Areopagite and
passing for his. The creeds and confessions do not formulate
any authoritative doctrine of angels; and modern rationalism
has tended to deny the existence of such beings, or to regard
the subject as one on which we can have no certain knowledge.
The principle of continuity, however, seems to require the
existence of beings intermediate between man and God.

The Old Testament says nothing about the origin of angels;
but the Book of Jubilees and the Slavonic Enoch describe their
creation; and, according to Col. i. 16, the angels were created
in, unto and through Christ.

Nor does the Bible give any formal account of the nature
of angels. It is doubtful how far Ezekiel's account of the
cherubim and Isaiah's account of the seraphim are to be taken
as descriptions of actual beings; they are probably figurative,
or else subjective visions. Angels are constantly spoken of as
" men," and, including even the Angel of Yahweh, are spoken
of as discharging the various functions of human life; they eat
and drink 12 , walk 13 and speak 14 . Putting aside the cherubim
and seraphim, they are not spoken of as having wings. On the
other hand they appear and vanish 15 , exercise miraculous powers 16 ,
and fly 17 . Seeing that the anthropomorphic language used of
the angels is similar to that used of God, the Scriptures would
hardly seem to require a literal interpretation in either case.
A special association is found, both in the Bible and elsewhere,
between the angels and the heavenly bodies 18 , and the elements
or elemental forces, fire, water, &c 19 . The angels are infinitely
numerous 20 .

The function of the angels is that of the supernatural servants
of God, His agents and representatives; the Angel of Yahweh,
as we have seen, is a manifestation of God. In old times, the
bne Elohim and the seraphim are His court, and the angels are
alike the court and the army of God; the cherubim are his
throne-bearers. In his dealings with men, the angels, as their

1 E.g. Matt. i. 20 (to Joseph), iv. n (to Jesus), Luke i. 26 (to Mary),
Acts xii. 7 (to Peter).

2 E.g. Mark viii. 38, xiii. 27. 3 Mark xii. 25. 4 Luke i. 19.
5 Rev. ix. 11. 6 Mark iii. 22. 7 Mark i. 13.

8 Michael, Jude 9. 9 Rom. viii. 38; Co!, ii. 10.

10 Col. i. 16. » Rev. vii. I. 12 Gen. xviii. 8.

13 Gen. xix. 16. 14 Zech. iv. I. u Judgss vi. 12, 21.

16 Rev. vii. I. viii. 17 Rev. viii. 13, xiv. 6.

18 Job xxxviii. 7; Asc. of Isaiah, iv. 18; Slav. Enoch, iv. 1.

19 Rev. xiv. 18, xvi. 5; possibly Gal. iv. 3; Col. ii. 8, 20.

20 Ps. lxviii. 17; Dan. vii. 10.

name implies, are specially His messengers, declaring His will
and executing His commissions. Through them he controls
nature and man. They are the guardian angels of the nations;
and we also find the idea that individuals have guardian angels 21 .
Later Jewish tradition held that the Law was given by angels 22 .
According to the Gnostic Basilides, the world was created by
angels. Mahommedanism has taken over and further elaborated
the Jewish and Christian ideas as to angels.

While the scriptural statements imply a belief in the existence
of spiritual beings intermediate between God and men, it is
probable that many of the details may be regarded merely as
symbolic imagery. In Scripture the function of the angel
overshadows his personality; the stress is on their ministry;
they appear in order to perform specific acts.

Bim.iOGRAPHY. — See the sections on " Angels " in the handbooks
of O. T. Theology by Ewald, Schultz, Smend, Kayser-Marti, &c. ;
and of N. T. Theology by Weiss, and in van Oosterzee's Dogmatics.
Also commentaries on special passages, especially Driver and Bevan
on Daniel, and G. A. Smith, Minor Prophets, ii. 310 ff. ; and articles
s.v. " Angel " in Hastings' Bible Dictionary, and the Encyclopaedia
Biblica. (W. H. Be.)

ANGEL, a gold coin, first used in France (angelot, ange) in 1340,
and introduced into England by Edward IV. in 1465 as a new
issue of the "noble," and so at first called the " angel-noble."
It varied in value between that period and the time of Charles I.
(when it was last coined) from 6s. 8d. to 10s. The name was
derived from the representation it bore of St Michael and the
dragon. The angel was the coin given to those who came to be
touched for the disease known as king's evil; after it was no
longer coined, medals, called touch-pieces, with the same device,
were given instead.

ANGELICA, a genus of plants of the natural order Umbelliferae,
represented in Britain by one species, A . sylvestris, a tall perennial
herb with large bipinnate leaves and large compound umbels of
white or purple flowers. The name Angelica is popularly given
to a plant of an allied genus, Archangelica officinalis, the tender
shoots of which are used in making certain kinds of aromatic
sweetmeats. Angelica balsam is obtained by extracting the roots
with alcohol, evaporating and extracting the residue with ether.
It is of a dark brown colour and contains angelica oil, angelica
wax and angelicin, Ci 8 H 30 O. The essential oil of the roots of
Angelica archangelica contains /3-terebangelene, CioHic, and other
terpenes; the oil of the seeds also contains /J-terebangelene,
together with methylethylacetic acid and hydroxymyristic acid.

The angelica tree is a member of the order Avaliaceae, a species
of Aralia {A. spinosa), a native of North America; it grows
8 to 12 ft. high, has a simple prickle-bearing stem forming an
umbrella-like head, and much divided leaves.

ANGELICO, FRA (1387-1455), Italian painter. II Beato Fra
Giovanni Angelico da Fiesole is the name given to a far-famed
painter-friar of the Florentine state in the 15th century, the
representative, beyond all other men, of pietistic painting. He
is often, but not accurately, termed simply " Fiesole," which is
merely the name of the town where he first took the vows; more
often Fra Angelico. If we turn his compound designation into
English, it runs thus — " the Beatified Friar John the Angelic
of Fiesole." In his lifetime he was known no doubt simply as
Fra Giovanni or Friar John; "The Angelic" is a laudatory
term which was assigned to him at an early date, — we find it in
use within thirty years after his death; and, at some period
which is not defined in our authorities, he was beatified by due
ecclesiastical process. His baptismal name was Guido, Giovanni
being only his name in religion. He was born at Vicchio, in the
Tuscan province of Mugello, of unknown but seemingly well-to-do
parentage, in 1387 (not 1390 as sometimes stated); in 1407 he
became a novice in the convent of S. Domenico at Fiesole, and
in 1408 he took the vows and entered the Dominican order.
Whether he had previously been a painter by profession is not
certain, but may be pronounced probable. The painter named
Lorenzo Monaco may have contributed to his art-training, and
the influence of the Sienese school is discernible in his work.

21 Matt, xviii. 10; Acts xii. 15.
22 Gal. iii. 19; Heb. ii. 2; LXX. of Deut. xxxiii. 2.

ANGELICO

According to Vasari, the first paintings of this artist were in the
Certosa of Florence; none such exist there now. His earliest
extant performances, in considerable number, are at Cortona,
whither he was sent during his novitiate, and here apparently he
spent all the opening years of his monastic life. His first works
executed in fresco were probably those, now destroyed, which he
painted in the convent of S. Domenico in this city; as a fresco-
painter, he may have worked under, or as a follower of, Gherardo
Stamina. From 1418 to 1436 he was back at Fiesole; in 1436
he was transferred to the Dominican convent of S. Marco in
Florence, and in 1438 undertook to paint the altarpiece for the
choir, followed by many other works; he may have studied
about this time the renowned frescoes in the Brancacci chapel in
the Florentine church of the Carmine and also the paintings of
Orcagna. In or about 1445 he was invited by the pope to Rome.
The pope who reigned from 143 1 to 1447 was Eugenius IV., and
he it was who in 1445 appointed another Dominican friar, a
colleague of Angelico, to be archbishop of Florence. If the story
(first told by Vasari) is true — that this appointment was made at
the suggestion of Angelico only after the archbishopric had been
offered to himself, and by him declined on the ground of his
inaptitude for so elevated and responsible a station — Eugenius,
and not (as stated by Vasari) his successor Nicholas V., must
have been the pope who sent the invitation and made the offer to
Fra Giovanni, for Nicholas only succeeded in 1447. The whole
statement lacks authentication, though in itself credible enough.
Certain it is that Angelico was staying in Rome in the first half
of 1447; and he painted in the Vatican the Cappella del Sacra-
mento, which was afterwards demolished by Paul III. In June
1447 he proceeded to Orvieto, to paint in the Cappella Nuova
of the cathedral, with the co-operation of his pupil Benozzo
Gozzoli. He afterwards returned to Rome to paint the chapel
of Nicholas V. In this capital he died in 1455, and he lies
buried in the church of the Minerva.

According to all the accounts which have reached us, few men
on whom the distinction of beatification has been conferred could
have deserved it more nobly than Fra Giovanni. He led a holy
and self-denying life, shunning all advancement, and was a
brother to the poor; no man ever saw him angered. He painted
with unceasing diligence, treating none but sacred subjects; he
never retouched or altered his work, probably with a religious
feeling that such as divine providence allowed the thing to
come, such it should remain He was wont to say that he who
illustrates the acts of Christ should be with Christ. It is averred
that he never handled a brush without fervent prayer and he
wept when he painted a Crucifixion. The Last Judgment and
the Annunciation were two of the subjects he most frequently
treated.

Bearing in mind the details already given as to the dates of Fra
Giovanni's sojournings in various localities, the reader will be able
to trace approximately the sequence of the works which we now
proceed to name as among his most important productions. In
Florence, in the convent of S. Marco (now converted into a national
museum), a series of frescoes, beginning towards 1443; in the
first cloister is the Crucifixion with St Dominic kneeling; and
the same treatment recurs on a wall near the dormitory; in the
chapterhouse is a third Crucifixion, with the Virgin swooning, a
composition of twenty life-sized figures — the red background,
which has a strange and harsh effect, is the misdoing of some
restorer; an '' Annunciation," the figures of about three-fourths
of life-size, in a dormitory; in the adjoining passage, the " Virgin
enthroned," with four saints; on the wall of a cell, the " Corona-
tion of the Virgin," with Saints Paul, Thomas Aquinas, Benedict,
Dominic, Francis and Peter Martyr; two Dominicans welcom-
ing Jesus, habited as a pilgrim; an " Adoration of the Magi ";
the" Marysat the Sepulchre." All these works are later than the
altarpiece which Angelico painted (as before mentioned) for the
choir connected with this convent, and which is now in the
academy of Florence; it represents the Virgin with Saints Cosmas
and Damian (the patrons of the Medici family), Dominic, Peter,
Francis, Mark, John Evangelist and Stephen; the pediment
illustrated the lives of Cosmas and Damian, but it has long been

severed from the main subject. In the Uffizi gallery, an altarpiece,
the Virgin (life-sized) enthroned, with the Infant and twelve
angels. In S. Domenico, Fiesole, a few frescoes, less fine than
those in S. Marco; also an altarpiece in tempera of the Virgin and
Child between Saints Peter, Thomas Aquinas, Dominic and
Peter Martyr, now much destroyed. The subject which originally
formed the predella of this picture has, since i860, been in the
National Gallery, London, and worthily represents there the hand
of the saintly painter. The subject is a Glory, Christ with the
banner of the Resurrection, and a multitude of saints, including,
at the extremities, the saints or beati of the Dominican order;
here are no fewer than 266 figures or portions of figures, many of
them having names inscribed. This predella was highly lauded
by Vasari; still more highly another picture which used to form
an altarpiece in Fiesole, and which now obtains world-wide
celebrity in the Louvre — the " Coronation of the Virgin," with
eight predella subjects of the miracles of St. Dominic. For the
church of Santa Trinita, Florence, Angelico executed a " Depo-
sition from the Cross," and for the church of the Angeli, a " Last
Judgment," both now in the Florentine academy; for S. Maria
Novella, a " Coronation of the Virgin," with a predella in three
sections, now in the Uffizi, — this again is one of his masterpieces.
In Orvieto cathedral he painted three triangular divisions of the
ceiling, portraying respectively Christ in a glory of angels, sixteen
saints and prophets, and the virgin and apostles: all these are
now much repainted and damaged. In Rome, in the Chapel of
Nicholas V., the acts of Saints Stephen and Lawrence; also
various figures of saints, and on the ceiling the four evangelists.
These works of the painter's advanced age, which have suffered
somewhat from restorations, show vigour superior to that of his
youth, along with a more adequate treatment of the architectural
perspectives. Naturally, there are a number of works currently
attributed to Angelico, but not really his; for instance, a " St
Thomas with the Madonna's girdle," in the Lateran museum, and
a " Virgin enthroned," in the church of S. Girolamo, Fiesole. It
has often been said that he commenced and frequently practised
as an illuminator; this is dubious and a presumption arises that
illuminations executed by Giovanni's brother, Benedetto, also a
Dominican, who died in 1448, have been ascribed to the more
famous artist. Benedetto may perhaps have assisted Giovanni in
the frescoes at S. Marco, but nothing of the kind is distinctly
traceable. A folio series of engravings from these paintings was
published in Florence, in 1852. Along with Gozzoli already
mentioned, Zanobi Strozzi and Gentile da Fabriano are named
as pupils of the Beato.

We have spoken of Angelico 's art as " pietistic "; this is in
fact its predominant character. His visages have an air of rapt
suavity, devotional fervency and beaming esoteric consciousness,
which is intensely attractive to some minds and realizes beyond
rivalry a particular ideal — that of ecclesiastical saintliness and
detachment from secular fret and turmoil. It should not be
denied that he did not always escape the pitfalls of such a method
of treatment, the faces becoming sleek and prim, with a smirk of
sexless religiosity which hardly eludes the artificial or even the
hypocritical; on other minds, therefore, and these some of the
most masculine and resolute, he produces little genuine impres-
sion. After allowing for this, Angelico should nevertheless be
accepted beyond cavil as an exalted typical painter according to
his own range of conceptions, consonant with his monastic calling,
unsullied purity of life and exceeding devoutness. Exquisite as
he is in his special mode of execution, he undoubtedly falls far
short, not only of his great naturalist contemporaries such as
Masaccio and Lippo Lippi, but even of so distant a precursor as
Giotto, in all that pertains to bold or life-like invention of a subject
or the realization of ordinary appearances, expressions and
actions — the facts of nature, as distinguished from the aspirations
or contemplations of the spirit. Technically speaking, he had
much finish and harmony of composition and colour, without
corresponding mastery of light and shade, and his knowledge of
the human frame was restricted. The brilliancy and fair light
scale of his tints is constantly remarkable, combined with a free
use of gilding; this conduces materially to that celestial character

ANGELL— ANGERS

which so pre-eminently distinguishes his pictured visions of the
divine persons, the hierarchy of heaven and the glory of the
redeemed.

Books regarding Fra Angelico are numerous. We may mention
those by S. Beissel, 1895; V. M. Crawford, 1900; R. L. Douglas,
1900; I. B. Supino, 1901 ; D. Tumiati, 1897; G. Williamson, 1901.

(VV. M. R.)

ANGELL, GEORGE THORNDIKE (1823-1909), American
philanthropist, was born at Southbridge, Massachusetts, on the
5th of June 1823. He graduated at Dartmouth in 1846, studied
law at the Harvard Law School, and in 1851 was admitted to the
bar in Boston, where he practised for many years. In 1868
he founded and became president of the Massachusetts Society
for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, in the same year
establishing and becoming editor of Our Dumb Animals, a
journal for the promotion of organized effort in securing the
humane treatment of animals. For many years he was active
in the organization of humane societies in England and America.
In 1882 he initiated the movement for the establishment of
Bands of Mercy (for the promotion of humane treatment of
animals), of which in 1908 there were more than 72,000 in active
existence. In 1889 he founded and became president of the
American Humane Education Society. He became well known
as a criminologist and also as an advocate of laws for the safe-
guarding of the public health and against adulteration of food.
He died at Boston on the 16th of March 1909.

ANGEL-LIGHTS, in architecture, the outer upper lights in
a perpendicular window, next to the springing; probably a
corruption of the word angle-lights, as they are nearly
triangular.

ANGELUS, a Roman Catholic devotion in memory of the
Annunciation. It has its name from the opening words, Angelus
Domini nuntiavit Mariae. It consists of three texts describing
the mystery, recited as versicle and response alternately with
the salutation " Hail, Mary! " This devotion is recited in the
Catholic Church three times daily, about 6 a.m., noon and 6 p.m.
At these hours a bell known as the Angelus bell is rung. This
is still rung in some English country churches, and has often
been mistaken for and alleged to be a survival of the curfew-bell.
The institution of the Angelus is by some ascribed to Pope
Urban II., by some to John XXII. The triple recitation is
ascribed to Louis XI. of France, who in 1472 ordered it to be
thrice said daily.

ANGELUS SILESIUS (1624-1677), German religious poet,
was born in 1624 at Breslau. His family name was Johann
Scheffler, but he is generally known by the pseudonym Angelus
Silesius, under which he published his poems and which marks
the country of his birth. Brought up a Lutheran, and at first
physician to the duke of Wiirttemberg-Oels, he joined in 1652
the Roman Catholic Church, in 1661 took orders as a priest,
and became coadjutor to the prince bishop of Breslau. He died
at Breslau on the 9th of July 1677. In 1657 Silesius published
under the title Heilige Seelenlust, oder geistliche Hirtenlieder der
in ihrenjesumverliebten Psyche (1657), a collection of 205 hymns,
the most beautiful of which, such as, Liebe, die du mich zum
Bilde deiner Gottheit hast gemacht and Mir nach, spricht Christus,
unser Held, have been adopted in the German Protestant hymnal.
More remarkable, however, is his Geistreiche Sinn- und Schluss-
reime (1657), afterwards called Cherubinischer Wander smann
(1674). This is a collection of " Reimspriiche " or rhymed
distichs embodying a strange mystical pantheism drawn mainly
from the writings of Jakob Bohme and- his followers. Silesius
delighted specially in the subtle paradoxes of mysticism. The
essence of God, for instance, he held to be love; God, he said,
can love nothing inferior to himself; but he cannot be an object
of love to himself without going out, so to speak, of himself,
without manifesting his infinity in a finite form; in other words,
by becoming man. God and man are therefore essentially one.

A complete edition of Scheffler's works {Sdmtliche poetische Werke)
was published by D. A. Rosenthal, 2 vols. (Rej,ensburg, 1862).
Both the Cherubinischer Wandersmann and Heilige Seelenlust have
been republished by G. Ellinger (1895 and 1901); a selection from
the former work by O. E. Hartleben (1896). For further notices

of Silesius' life and work, see Hoffmann von Fallersleben in Wei'
mar'sches Jahrbuch I. (Hanover, 1854) ; A. Kahlert, Angelus Silesius
(1853) ; C. Seltmann, Angelus Silesius und seine Mystik (1896), and
a biog. by H. Mahn (Dresden, 1896).

ANGERMUNDE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Brandenburg, on Lake Miinde, 43 m. from Berlin by the Berlin-
Stettin railway, and at the junction of lines to Prenzlau, Freien-
walde and Schwedt. Pop. (1900) 7465. It has three Protestant
churches, a grammar school and court of law. Its industries
embrace iron founding and enamel working. In 1420 the elector
Frederick I. of Brandenburg gained here a signal victory over the
Pomeranians.

ANGERONA, or Angeronia, an old Roman goddess, whose
name and functions are variously explained. According to
ancient authorities, she was a goddess who relieved men from
pain and sorrow, or delivered the Romans and their flocks from
angina (quinsy) ; or she was the protecting goddess of Rome
and the keeper of the sacred name of the city, which might not
be pronounced lest it should be revealed to her enemies; it was
even thought that Angerona itself was' this name. Modern
scholars regard her as a goddess akin to Ops, Acca Larentia and
Dea Dia; or as the goddess of the new year and the returning
sun (according to Mommsen, ab angerendo = airo tov ava<t>ipe<xdcu
tov y/Xlov). Her festival, called Divalia or Angeronalia,
was celebrated on the 21st of December. The priests offered
sacrifice in the temple of Volupia, the goddess of pleasure, in
which stood a statue of Angerona, with a finger on her mouth,
which was bound and closed (Macrobius i. 10; Pliny, Nat. Hist.
iii. 9; Varro, L. L. vi. 23). She was worshipped as Ancharia
at Faesulae, where an altar belonging to her has been recently
discovered. (See Faesulae.)

ANGERS, a city of western France, capital of the department
of Maine-et-Loire, 191 m. S.W. of Paris by the Western railway
to Nantes. Pop. (1906) 73,585. It occupies rising ground on
both banks of the Maine, which are united by three bridges. The
surrounding district is famous for its flourishing nurseries and
market gardens. Pierced with wide, straight streets, well
provided with public gardens, and surrounded by ample, tree-
lined boulevards, beyond which lie new suburbs, Angers is one
of the pleasantest towns in France. Of its numerous medieval
buildings the most important is the cathedral of St Maurice,
dating in the main from the 12th and 13th centuries. Between
the two flanking towers of the west facade, the spires of which
are of the 16th century, rises a central tower of the same period.
The most prominent feature of the fagade is the series of eight
warriors carved on the base of this tower. The vaulting of the
nave takes the form of a series of cupolas, and that of the choir
and transept is similar. The chief treasures of the church are
its rich stained glass (12th, 13th and 15th centuries) and valuable
tapestry (14th to 18th centuries). The bishop's palace which
adjoins the cathedral contains a fine synodal hall of the 12th
century. Of the other churches of Angers, the principal are
St Serge, an abbey-church of the 12th and 15th centuries, and
La Trinite ( 1 2 th century) . The prefecture occupies the buildings
of the famous abbey of St Aubin ; in its courtyard are elaborately
sculptured arcades of the nth and 12th centuries, from which
period dates the tower, the only survival of the splendid abbey-
church. Ruins of the old churches of Toussaint (13th century)
and Notre-Dame du Ronceray (nth century) are also to be seen.
The castle of Angers, an imposing building girt with towers and
a moat, dates from the 13th century and is now used as an
armoury. The ancient hospital of St Jean (12th century) is
occupied by an archaeological museum; and the Logis Barrault,
a mansion built about 1500, contains the public library, the
municipal museum, which has a large collection of pictures and
sculptures, and the Musee David, containing works by the famous
sculptor David d' Angers, who was a native of the town. One of
his masterpieces, a bronze statue of Rene of Anjou, stands close
by the castle. The Hotel de Pince or d' Anjou (1 523-1530)
is the finest of the stone mansions of Angers; there are also
many curious wooden houses of the 15th and 16th centuries.
The palais de justice, the Catholic institute, a fine theatre, and

ANGERSTEIN— ANGIOSPERMS

a hospital with 1500 beds are the more remarkable of the modern
buildings of the town. Angers is the seat of a bishopric, dating
from the 3rd century, a prefecture, a court of appeal and a court
of assizes. It has a tribunal of first instance, a tribunal of com-
merce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce,
a branch of the Bank of France and several learned societies.
Its educational institutions include ecclesiastical seminaries, a
lycee, a preparatory school of medicine and pharmacy, a uni-
versity with free faculties (Jacultis libres) of theology, law, letters
and science, a higher school of agriculture, training colleges, a
school of arts and handicrafts and a school of fine art. The
prosperity of the town is largely due to the great slate-quarries
of the vicinity, but the distillation of liqueurs from fruit, cable,
rope and thread-making, and the manufacture of boots and shoes,
umbrellas and parasols are leading industries. The weaving of
sail-cloth and woollen and other fabrics, machine construction,
wire-drawing, and manufacture of sparkling wines and preserved
fruits are also carried on. The chief articles of commerce,
besides slate and manufactured goods, are hemp, early vegetables,
fruit, flowers and live-stock.

Angers, capital of the Gallic tribe of the Andecavi, was under
the Romans called Juliomagus. During the 9th century it
became the seat of the counts of Anjou (q.v.) . It suffered severely
from the invasions of the Northmen in 845 and the succeeding
years, and of the English in the 12th and 15th centuries; the
Huguenots took it in 1585, and the Vendean royalists were
repulsed near it in 1793. Till the Revolution, Angers was the
seat of a celebrated university founded in the 14th century.

See L. M. Thorode, Notice de la ville a" Angers (Angers, 1897).

ANGERSTEIN, JOHN JULIUS (1735-1822), London merchant,
and patron of the fine arts, was born at St Petersburg and settled
in London about 1749. His collection of paintings, consisting
of about forty of the most exquisite specimens of the art,
purchased by the British government, on his death, formed the
nucleus of the National Gallery.

ANGILBERT (d. 814), Frankish Latin poet, and minister
of Charlemagne, was of noble Frankish parentage, and educated
at the palace school under Alcuin. As the friend and adviser
of the emperor's son, Pippin, he assisted for a while in the govern-
ment of Italy, and was later sent on three important embassies
to the pope, in 792, 794 and 796. Although he was the father
of two children by Charlemagne's daughter, Bertha, one of them
named Nithard, we have no authentic account of his marriage,
and from 790 he was abbot of St Riquier, where his brilliant
rule gained for him later the renown of a saint. Angilbert,
however, was little like the true medieval saint; his poems reveal
rather the culture and tastes of a man of the world, enjoying
the closest intimacy with the imperial family. He accompanied
Charlemagne to Rome in 800 and was one of the witnesses to
his will in 814. Angilbert was the Homer of the emperor's
literary circle, and was the probable author of an epic, of which
the fragment which has been preserved describes the life at the
palace and the meeting between Charlemagne and Leo III. It
is a mosaic from Virgil, Ovid, Lucan and Fortunatus, composed
in the manner of Einhard's use of Suetonius, and exhibits a true
poetic gift. Of the shorter poems, besides the greeting to Pippin
on his return from the campaign against the Avars (796), an
epistle to David (Charlemagne) incidentally reveals a delightful
picture of the poet living with his children in a house surrounded
by pleasant gardens near the emperor's palace. The reference
to Bertha, however, is distant and respectful, her name occurring
merely on the list of princesses to whom he sends his salutation.

Angilbert's poems have been published by E. Dummler in the
Monumenta Germaniae Historica. For criticisms of this edition see
Traube in Roederer's Schriften fur germanische Philologie (1888).
See also A. Molinter, Les Sources de Vhistoire de France.

ANGINA PECTORIS (Latin for " pain of the chest "), a term
applied to a violent paroxysm of pain, arising almost invariably
in connexion with disease of the coronary arteries, a lesion
causing progressive degeneration of the heart muscle (see Heart:
Disease). An attack of angina pectoris usually comes on with
a sudden seizure of pain, felt at.first over the region of the heart,
but radiating through the chest in various directions, and

frequently extending down the left arm. A feeling of constriction
and of suffocation accompanies the pain, although there is
seldom actual difficulty in breathing. When the attack comes
on, as it often does, in the course of some bodily exertion, the
sufferer is at once brought to rest, and during the continuance
of the paroxysm experiences the most intense agony. The
countenance becomes pale, the surface of the body cold, the
pulse feeble, and death appears to be imminent, when suddenly
the attack subsides and complete relief is obtained. The dura-
tion of a paroxysm rarely exceeds two or three minutes, but it
may last for a longer period. The attacks are apt to recur on
slight exertion, and even in aggravated cases without any such
exciting cause. Occasionally the first seizure proves fatal; but
more commonly death takes place as the result of repeated
attacks. Angina pectoris is extremely rare under middle life,
and is much more common in males than in females; It must
always be regarded as a disorder of a very serious nature. In the
treatment of the paroxysm, nitrite of amyl has now replaced all
other remedies. It can be carried by the patient in the form of
nitrite of amyl pearls, each pearl containing the dose prescribed
by the physician. Kept in this way the drug does not lose
strength. As soon as the pain begins the patient crushes a
pearl in his handkerchief and holds it to his mouth and nose..
The relief given in this way is marvellous and usually takes place
within a very few seconds. In the rare cases where this drug
does not relieve, hypodermic injections of morphia are used.
But on account of the well-known dangers of this drug, it should
only be administered by a medical man. To prevent recurrence
of the attacks something may be done by scrupulous attention
to the general health, and by the avoidance of mental and
physical strain. But the most important preventive of all is
" bed," of which fourteen days must be enforced on the least
premonition of anginal pain.

Pseudo-angina. — In connexion with angina pectoris, a far
more common condition must be mentioned that has now
universally received the name of pseudo-angina. This includes
the praecordial pains which very closely resemble those of true
angina. The essential difference lies in the fact that pseudo-
angina is independent of structural disease of the heart and
coronary arteries. In true angina there is some condition within
the heart which starts the stimulus sent to the nerve centres. In
pseudo-angina the starting-point is not the heart but some
peripheral or visceral nerve. The impulse passes thence to the
medulla, and so reaching the sensory centres starts a feeling of
pain that radiates into the chest or down the arm. There are
three main varieties: — (1) the reflex, (2) the vaso-motor, (3) the
toxic. The reflex is by far the most common, and is generally due
to irritation from one of the abdominal organs. An attack of
pseudo-angina may be agonizing, the pain radiating through the
chest and into the left arm, but the patient does not usually
assume the motionless attitude of true angina, and the duration
of the seizure is usually much longer. The treatment is that of
the underlying neurosis and the prognosis is a good one, sudden
death not occurring.

ANGIOSPERMS. The botanical term " Angiosperm " (ayyeiov,
receptacle, and cnrkpixa, seed) was coined in the form Angio-
spermae by Paul Hermann in 1690, as the name of that one of
his primary divisions of the plant kingdom, which included
flowering plants possessing seeds enclosed in capsules, in contra-
distinction to his Gymnospermae, or flowering plants with
achenial or schizo-carpic fruits — the whole fruit or each of its
pieces being here regarded as a seed and naked. The term and
its antonym were maintained by Linnaeus with the same sense,
but with restricted application, in the names of the orders of his
class Didynamia. Its use with any approach to its modern scope
only became possible after Robert Brown had established in
1827 the existence of truly naked seeds in the Cycadeae and
Coniferae, entitling them to be correctly called Gymnosperms.
From that time onwards, so long as these Gymnosperms were,
as was usual, reckoned as dicotyledonous flowering plants, the
term Angiosperm was used antithetically by botanical writers,
but with varying limitation, as a group-name for other

ANGIOSPERMS

dicotyledonous plants. The advent in 1851 of Hofmeister's
brilliant discovery of the changes proceeding in the embryo-sac
of flowering plants, and his determination of the correct relation-
ships of these with the Cryptogamia, fixed the true position of
Gymnosperms as a class distinct from Dicotyledons, and the
term Angiosperm then gradually came to be accepted as the suit-
able designation for the whole of the flowering plants other than
Gymnosperms, and as including therefore the classes of Dicoty-
ledons and Monocotyledons. This is the sense in which the term
is nowadays received and in which it is used here.

The trend of the evolution of the plant kingdom has been in
the direction of the establishment of a vegetation of fixed habit
and adapted to the vicissitudes of a life on land, and the Angio-
sperms are the highest expression of this evolution and constitute
the dominant vegetation of the earth's surface at the present
epoch. There is no land-area from the poles to the equator,
where plant-life is possible, upon which Angiosperms are not
found. They occur also abundantly in the shallows of rivers and
fresh-water lakes, and in less number in salt lakes and in the sea;
such aquatic Angiosperms are not, however, primitive forms, but
are derived from immediate land-ancestors. Associated with
this diversity of habitat is great variety in general form and
manner of growth. The familiar duckweed which covers the
surface of a pond consists of a tiny green " thalloid " shoot, one,
that is, which shows no distinction of parts — stem and leaf, and
a simple root growing vertically downwards into the water. The
great forest-tree has a shoot, which in the course perhaps of
hundreds of years, has developed a wide -spreading system of
trunk and branches, bearing on the ultimate twigs or branchlets
innumerable leaves, while beneath the soil a widely-branching
root-system covers an area of corresponding extent. Between
these two extremes is every conceivable gradation, embracing
aquatic and terrestrial herbs, creeping, erect or climbing in
habit, shrubs and trees, and representing a much greater variety
than is to be found in the other subdivision of seed-plants, the
Gymnosperms.

In internal structure also the variety of tissue-formation far
exceeds that found in Gymnosperms (see Plants: Anatomy).
The vascular bundles of the stem belong to the col-
stmctare. lateral type, that is to say, the elements of the wood or
xylem and the bast or phloem stand side by side on the
same radius. In the larger of the two great groups into which
the Angiosperms are divided, the Dicotyledons, the bundles in
the very young stem are arranged in an open ring, separating
a central pith from an outer cortex. In each bundle, separating
the xylem and phloem, is a layer of meristem or active formative
tissue, known as cambium; by the formation of a layer of
cambium between the bundles (interfascicular cambium) a
complete ring is formed, and a regular periodical increase in
thickness results from it by the development of xylem on the
inside and phloem on the outside. The soft phloem soon becomes
crushed, but the hard wood persists, and forms the great bulk of
the stem and branches of the woody perennial. Owing to
differences in the character of the elements produced at the
beginning and end of the season, the wood is marked out in
transverse section into concentric rings, one for each season of
growth — the so-called annual rings. In the smaller group, the
Monocotyledons, the bundles are more numerous in the young
stem and scattered through the ground tissue. Moreover they
contain no cambium and the stem once formed increases in
diameter only in exceptional cases.

As in Gymnosperms, branching is monopodial; dichotomy or
the forking of the growing point into two equivalent branches
which replace the main stem, is absent both in the case
organs. °f tne si -em an d the root. The leaves show a remark-
able variety in form (see Leat), but are generally small
in comparison with the size of the plant; exceptions occur in
some Monocotyledons, e.g. in the Aroid family, where in some
genera the plant produces one huge, much-branched leaf each
season.

In rare cases the main axis is unbranched and ends in a flower,
as, for instance, in the tulip, where scale-leaves, forming the

underground bulb, green foliage-leaves and coloured floral
leaves are borne on one and the same, axis. Generally, flowers
are formed only on shoots of a higher order, often only on the
ultimate branches of a much branched system. A potential
branch or bud, either foliage or flower, is formed in the axil of
each leaf; sometimes more than one bud arises, as for instance
in the walnut, where two or three stand in vertical series above
each leaf. Many of the buds remain dormant, or are called to
development under exceptional circumstances, such as the
destruction of existing branches. For instance, the clipping of
a hedge or the lopping of a tree will cause to develop numerous
buds which may have been dormant for years. Leaf-buds
occasionally arise from the roots, when they are called adven-
titious; this occurs in many fruit trees, poplars, elms and others.
For instance, the young shoots seen springing from the ground
around an elm are not seedlings but root-shoots. Frequently,
as in many Dicotyledons, the primary root, the original root of
the seedling, persists throughout the life of the plant, forming,
as often in biennials, a thickened tap-root, as in carrot, or in
perennials, a much-branched root system. In many Dicotyledons
and most Monocotyledons, the primary root soon perishes, and
its place is taken by adventitious roots developed from the
stem.

The most characteristic feature of the Angiosperm is the
flower, which shows remarkable variety in form and elaboration,
and supplies the most trustworthy characters for the Flower
distinction of the series and families or natural orders,
into which the group is divided. The flower is a shoot (stem
bearing leaves) which has a special form associated with the
special function of ensuring the fertilization of the egg and the
development of fruit containing seed. Except where it is
terminal it arises, like the leaf-shoot, in the axil of a leaf, which
is then known as a bract. Occasionally, as in violet, a flower
arises singly in the axil of an ordinary foliage-leaf; it is then
termed axillary. Generally, however, the flower-bearing portion
of the plant is sharply distinguished from the foliage leaf-
bearing or vegetative portion, and forms a more or less elaborate
branch-system in which the bracts are small and scale-like.
Such a branch-system is called an inflorescence. The primary
function of the flower is to bear the spores. These, as in Gymno-
sperms, are of two kinds, microspores or pollen-grains, borne
in the stamens (or microsporophylls) and megaspores, in which
the egg-cell is developed, contained in the ovule, which is borne
enclosed in the carpel (or megasporophyll) . The flower may
consist only of spore-bearing leaves, as in willow, where each
flower comprises only a few stamens or two carpels. Usually,
however, other leaves are present which are only indirectly
concerned with the reproductive process, acting as protective
organs for the sporophylls or forming an attractive envelope.
These form the perianth and are in one series, when the flower
is termed monochlamydeous, or in two series (dichlamydeous) .
In the second case the outer series (calyx of sepals) is generally
green and leaf-like, its function being to protect the rest of the
flower, especially in the bud; while the inner series (corolla of
petals) is generally white or brightly coloured, and more delicate
in structure, its function being to attract the particular insect or
bird by agency of which pollination is effected. The insect, &c,
is attracted by the colour and scent of the flower, and frequently
also by honey which is secreted in some part of the flower.
(For further details on the form and arrangement of the flower
and its parts, see Flower.)

Each stamen generally bears four pollen-sacs (microsporangia)
which are associated to form the anther, and carried up on a
stalk or filament. The development of the micro-
sporangia and the contained spores (pollen-grains) an< / „„//,,„,
is closely comparable with that of the microsporangia
in Gymnosperms or heterosporous ferns. The pollen is set free
by the opening (dehiscence) of the anther, generally by means
of longitudinal slits, but sometimes by pores, as in the heath
family (Ericaceae), or by valves, as in the barberry. It is then
dropped or carried by some external agent, wind, water or some
member of the animal kingdomj on to the receptive surface of

ANGIOSPERMS

embryo-

sac

the carpel of the same or another flower. The carpel, or aggregate
of carpels forming the pistil or gynaeceum, comprises an ovary
containing one or more ovules and a receptive surface or stigma;
the stigma is sometimes carried up on a style. The mature pollen-
grain is, like other spores, a single cell; except in the case of
some submerged aquatic plants, it has a double wall, a thin
delicate wall of unaltered cellulose, the endospore or intine,
and a tough outer cuticularized exospore or extine. The exo-
spore often bears spines or warts, or is variously sculptured,
and the character of the markings is often of value for the
distinction of genera or higher groups. Germination of the
microspore begins before it leaves the pollen-sac. In very few
cases has anything representing prothallial development been
observed; generally a small cell (the antheridial or generative
cell) is cut off, leaving a larger tube-cell. When placed on
the stigma, under favourable circumstances, the pollen-grain
puts forth a pollen-tube which grows down the tissue of the style
to the ovary, and makes its way along the placenta, guided by
projections or hairs, to the mouth of an ovule. The nucleus of
the tube-cell has meanwhile passed into the tube, as does also the
generative nucleus which divides to form two male- or sperm-
cells. The male-cells are carried to their destination in the tip
of the pollen-tube.

The ovary contains one or more ovules borne on a pla-
centa, which is generally some part of the ovary-wall. The
development of the ovule, which represents the
f™!'!".!"' macrosporangium, is very similar to the process in
Gymnosperms; when mature it consists of one or two
coats surrounding the central nucellus, except at the
apex where an opening, the micropyle, is left. The nucellus is a
cellular tissue enveloping one large cell, the embryo-sac or
macrospore. The germination of the macrospore consists in
the repeated division of its nucleus to form two groups of four,
one group at each end of the embryo-sac. One nucleus from each
group, the polar nucleus, passes to the centre of the sac, where
the two fuse to form the so-called definitive nucleus. Of the
three cells at the micropylar end of the sac, all naked cells
(the so-called egg-apparatus), one is the egg-cell or oosphere,
the other two, which may be regarded as representing abortive
egg-cells (in rare cases capable of fertilization), are known as
synergidae. The three cells at the opposite end are known
as antipodal cells and become invested with a cell-wall. The
gametophyte or prothallial generation is thus extremely reduced,
consisting of but little more than the male and female sexual
cells — the two sperm-cells in the pollen-tube and the egg-cell
(with the synergidae) in the embryo-sac. At the period of
fertilization the embryo-sac lies in close proximity
Uoo. ' to l ^ e opening of the micropyle, into which the pollen-
tube has penetrated, the separating cell-wall becomes
absorbed, and the male or sperm-cells are ejected into the embryo-
sac. Guided by the synergidae one male-cell passes into the
oosphere with which it fuses, the two nuclei uniting, while the
other fuses with the definitive nucleus, or, as it is also called, the
endosperm nucleus. This remarkable double fertilization as it
has been called, although only recently discovered, has been
proved to take place in widely-separated families, and both in
Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons, and there is every probability
that, perhaps with variations, it is the normal process in Angio-
sperms. After impregnation the fertilized oosphere immediately
surrounds itself with a cell-wall and becomes the oospore which
by a process of growth forms the embryo of the new plant.
The endosperm-nucleus divides rapidly to produce a cellular
tissue which fills up the interior of the rapidly-growing embryo-
sac, and forms a tissue, known as endosperm, in which is stored
a supply of nourishment for the use later on of the embryo. It
has long been known that after fertilization of the egg has taken
place, the formation of endosperm begins from the endosperm
nucleus, and this had come to be regarded as the recommence-
ment of the development of a prothallium after a pause following
the reinvigorating union of the polar nuclei. This view is still
maintained by those who differentiate two acts of fertilization
within the embryo-sac, and regard that of the egg by the first

male-cell, as the true or generative fertilization, and that of the
polar nuclei by the second male gamete as a vegetative fertiliza-
tion which gives a stimulus to development in correlation with the
other. If, on the other hand, the endosperm is the product
of an act of fertilization as definite as that giving rise to the
embryo itself, we have to recognize that twin-plants are produced
within the embryo-sac — one, the embryo, which becomes the
angiospermous plant, the other, the endosperm, a short-lived,
undifferentiated nurse to assist in the nutrition of the former,
even as the subsidiary embryos in a pluri-embryonic Gymno-
sperm may facilitate the nutrition of the dominant one. If this is
so, and the endosperm like the embryo is normally the product
of a sexual act, hybridization will give a hybrid endosperm as
it does a hybrid embryo, and herein (it is suggested) we may have
the explanation of the phenomenon of xenia observed in the
mixed endosperms of hybrid races of maize and other plants,
regarding which it has only been possible hitherto to assert
that they were indications of the extension of the influence of
the pollen beyond the egg and its product. This would not,
however, explain the formation of fruits intermediate in size and
colour between those of crossed parents. The signification of
the coalescence of the polar nuclei is not explained by these new
facts, but it is noteworthy that the second male-cell is said to
unite sometimes with the apical polar nucleus, the sister of the
egg, before the union of this with the basal polar one. The idea
of the endosperm as a second subsidiary plant is no new one;
it was suggested long ago in explanation of the coalescence of
the polar nuclei, but it was then based on the assumption that
these represented male and female cells, an assumption for which
there was no evidence and which was inherently improbable.
The proof of a coalescence of the second male nucleus with the
definitive nucleus gives the conception a more stable basis.
The antipodal cells aid more or less in the process of nutrition
of the developing embryo, and may undergo multiplication,
though they ultimately disintegrate, as do also the synergidae.
As in Gymnosperms and other groups an interesting qualitative
change is associated with the process of fertilization. The
number of chromosomes (see Plants: Cytology) in the nucleus
of the two spores, pollen-grain and embryo-sac, is only half the
number found in an ordinary vegetative nucleus; and this
reduced number persists in the cells derived from them. The
full number is restored in the fusion of the male and female nuclei
in the process of fertilization, and remains until the formation of
the cells from which the spores are derived in the new generation.

In several natural orders and genera departures from the course
of development just described have been noted. In the natural
order Rosaceae, the series Querciflorae, and the very anomalous
genus Casuarina and others, instead of a single macrospore a
more or less extensive sporogenous tissue is formed, but only one
cell proceeds to the formation of a functional female cell. In
Casuarina, Juglans and the order Corylaceae, the pollen-tube
does not enter by means of the micropyle, but passing down the
ovary wall and through the placenta, enters at the chalazal end
of the ovule. Such a method of entrance is styled chalazogamic,
in contrast to the porogamic or ordinary method of approach by
means of the micropyle.

The result of fertilization is the development of the ovule into
the seed. By the segmentation of the fertilized egg, now invested
by cell-membrane, the embryo-plant arises. A varying
number of transverse segment-walls transform it into i <&,
a pro-embryo — a cellular row of which the cell nearest
the micropyle becomes attached to the apex of the embryo-sac,
and thus fixes the position of the developing, embryo, while the
terminal cell is projected into its cavity. In Dicotyledons the
shoot of the embryo is wholly derived from the terminal cell of the
pro-embryo, from the next cell the root arises, and the remaining
ones form the suspensor. In many Monocotyledons the terminal
cell forms the'cotyledonary portion alone of the shoot of the
embryo, its axial part and the root being derived from the
adjacent cell; the cotyledon is thus a terminal structure and the
apex of the primary stem a lateral one — a condition in marked
contrast with that of the Dicotyledons. In some Monocotyledons,

ANGIOSPERMS

however, the cotyledon is not really terminal. The primary root
of the embryo in all Angiosperms points towards the micropyle.
The developing embryo at the end of the suspensor grows out to
a varying extent into the forming endosperm, from which by
surface absorption it derives good material for growth; at the
same time the suspensor plays a direct part as a carrier of nutrition,
and may even develop, where perhaps no endosperm is formed,
special absorptive " suspensor roots " which invest the developing
embryo, or pass out into the body and coats of the ovule, or even
into the placenta. In some cases the embryo or the embryo-sac
sends out suckers into the nucellus and ovular integument. As
the embryo develops it may absorb all the food material available,
and store, either in its cotyledons or in its hypocotyl, what is not
immediately required for growth, as reserve-food for use in
germination, and by so doing it increases in size until it may fill
entirely the embryo-sac; or its absorptive power at this stage may
be limited to what is necessary for growth and it remains of
relatively small size, occupying but a small area of the embryo-sac,
which is otherwise filled with endosperm in which the reserve-food
is stored. There are also intermediate states. The position of the
embryo in relation to the endosperm varies, sometimes it is
internal, sometimes external, but the significance of this has not
yet been established.

The formation of endosperm starts, as has been stated, from
the endosperm nucleus. Its segmentation always begins before
that of the egg, and thus there is timely preparation for the
nursing of the young embryo. If in its extension to contain the
new formations within it the embryo-sac remains narrow, endo-
sperm formation proceeds upon the lines of a cell-division, but in
wide embryo-sacs the endosperm is first of all formed as a layer
of naked cells around the wall of the sac, and only gradually
acquires a pericellular character, forming a tissue filling the sac.
The function of the endosperm is primarily that of nourishing the
embryo, and its basal position in the embryo-sac places it
favourably for the absorption of food material entering the ovule.
Its duration varies with the precocity of the embryo. It may be
wholly absorbed by the progressive growth of the embryo within
the embryo-sac, or it may persist as a definite and more or less
conspicuous constituent of the seed. When it persists as a massive
element of the seed its nutritive function is usually apparent, for
there is accumulated within its cells reserve-food, and according
to the dominant substance it is starchy, oily, or rich in cellulose,
mucilage or proteid. In cases where the embryo has stored
reserve food within itself and thus provided for self -nutrition,
such endosperm as remains in the seed may take on other
functions, for instance, that of water-absorption.

Some deviations from the usual course of development may be
noted. Parthenogenesis, or the development of an embryo from an
egg-cell without the latter having been fertilized has been de-
scribed in speciesof Thalictrum, Antennaria&iid Alchemilla. Poly-
embryony is generally associated with the development of cells
other than the egg-cell. Thus in Erythronium and Limnocharis the
fertilized egg may form a mass of tissue on which several embryos
are produced. Isolated cases show that any of the cells within the
embryo-sac may exceptionally form an embryo, e.g. the synergidae
in species of Mimosa, Iris and Allium, and in the last-mentioned
the antipodal cells also. In Coelebogyne (Euphorbiaceae) and in
Funkia (Liliaceae) polyembryony results from an adventitious
production of embryos from the cells of the nucellus around the
top of the embryo-sac. In a species of Allium, embryos have
been found developing in the same individualfrom the egg-cell,
synergids, antipodal cells and cells of the nucellus. In two
Malayan species of Balanophora, the embryo is developed from
a cell of the endosperm, which is formed from the upper polar
nucleus only, the egg apparatus becoming disorganized. The
last-mentioned case has been regarded as representing an
apogamous development of the sporophy te from the gametophy te
comparable to the cases of apogamy described in Ferns. But
the great diversity of these abnormal cases as shown in the
examples cited above suggests the use of great caution in for-
mulating definite morphological theories upon them.

As the development of embryo and endosperm proceeds within

the embryo-sac, its wall enlarges and commonly absorbs the
substance of the nucellus (which is likewise enlarging) to near its
outer limit, and combines with it and the integument
to form the seed-coat: or the whole nucellus and even

Fruit and
seed.

the integument may be absorbed. In some plants the
nucellus is not thus absorbed, but itself becomes a seat of de-
posit of reserve-food constituting the perisperm which may coexist
with endosperm, as in the water-lily order, or may alone form a
food-reserve for the embryo, as in Canna. Endospermic food-
reserve has evident advantages over perispermic, and the latter
is comparatively rarely found and only in non-progressive series.
Seeds in which endosperm or perisperm or both exist are com-
monly called albuminous or endospermic, those in which neither is
found are termed exalbuminous or exendospermic. These terms,
extensively used by systematists, only refer, however, to the
grosser features of the seed, and indicate the more or less evident
occurrence of a food-reserve ; many so-called exalbuminous seeds
show to microscopic examination a distinct endosperm which may
have other than a nutritive function. The presence or absence
of endosperm, its relative amount when present, and the position
of the embryo within it, are valuable characters for the distinction
of orders and groups of orders. Meanwhile the ovary wall has
developed to form the fruit or pericarp, the structure of which is
closely associated with the manner of distribution of the seed.
Frequently the influence of fertilization is felt beyond the ovary,
and other parts of the flower take part in the formation of the
fruit, as the floral receptacle in the apple, strawberry and others.
The character of the seed-coat bears a definite relation to that of
the fruit. Their function is the twofold one of protecting the
embryo and of aiding in dissemination; they may also directly
promote germination. If the fruit is a dehiscent one and the seed
is therefore soon exposed, the seed-coat has to provide for the
protection of the embryo and may also have to secure dissemina-
tion. On the other hand, indehiscent fruits discharge these
functions for the embryo, and the seed-coat is only slightly
developed. Dissemination is effected by the agency of
water, of air, of animals — and fruits and seeds are a tion.
therefore grouped in respect of this as hydrophilous,
anemophilous and zooidiophilous. The needs for these are
obvious — buoyancy in water and resistance to wetting for the
first, some form of parachute for the second, and some attaching
mechanism or attractive structure for the third. The methods in
which these are provided are of infinite variety, and any and
every part of the flower and of the inflorescence may be called into
requisition to supply the adaptation (see Fruit). Special
outgrowths, arils, of the seed-coat are of frequent occurrence. In
the feature of fruit and seed, by which the distribution of Angio-
sperms is effected, we have a distinctive character of the class. In
Gymnosperms we have seeds, and the carpels may become modified
and close around these, as in Pinus, during the process of ripening
to form an imitation of a box-like fruit which subsequently open-
ing allows the seeds to escape; but there is never in them the
closed ovary investing from the outset the ovules, and ultimately
forming the ground-work of the fruit.

Their fortuitous dissemination does not always bring seeds
upon a suitable nidus for germination, the primary essential of
which is a sufficiency of moisture, and the duration of
vitality of the embryo is a point of interest. Some Oermina-
seeds retain vitality for a period of many years, though seeA
there is no warrant for the popular notion that genuine
" mummy wheat " will germinate; on the other hand some seeds
lose vitality in little more than a year. Further, the older the
seed the more slow as a general rule will germination be in
starting, but there are notable exceptions. This pause, often of
so long duration, in the growth of the embryo between the time
of its perfect development within the seed and the moment of
germination, is one of the remarkable and distinctive features of
the life of Spermatophytes. The aim of germination is the fixing
of the embryo in the soil, effected usually by means of the root,
which is the first part of the embryo to appear, in preparation
for the elongation of the epicotyledonary portion of the shoot,
and there is infinite variety in the details of the process. In

ANGIOSPERMS

repro-
duction.

albuminous Dicotyledons the cotyledons act as the absorbents of
the reserve-food of the seed and are commonly brought above
ground (epigeal), either withdrawn from the seed-coat or carrying
it upon them, and then they serve as the first green organs of the
plant. The part of the stem below the cotyledons (hypocotyl)
commonly plays the greater part in bringing this about. Ex-
albuminous Dicotyledons usually store reserve-food in their
cotyledons, which may in germination remain below ground
(hypogeal) . In albuminous Monocotyledons the cotyledon itself,
probably in consequence of its terminal position, is commonly
the agent by which the embryo is thrust out of the seed, and it
may function solely as a feeder, its extremity developing as a
sucker through which the endosperm is absorbed, or it may
become the first green organ, the terminal sucker dropping
off with the seed-coat when the endosperm is exhausted.
Exalbuminous Monocotyledons are either hydrophytes or
strongly hygrophilous plants and have often peculiar features
in germination.

Distribution by seed appears to satisfy so well the requirements
of Angiosperms that distribution by vegetative buds is only an

occasional process. At the same time every bud on a
~ e # Sff Wve shoot has the capacity to form a new plant if placed

in suitable conditions, as the horticultural practice

of propagation by cuttings shows; in nature we see
plants spreading by the rooting of their shoots, and buds we
know may be freely formed not only on stems but on leaves and
on roots. Where detachable buds are produced, which can be
transported through the air to a distance, each of them is an
incipient shoot which may have a root, and there is always
reserve-food stored in some part of it. In essentials such a bud
resembles a seed. A relation between such vegetative distribu-
tion buds and production of flower is usually marked. Where
there is free formation of buds there is little flower and commonly
no seed, and the converse is also the case. Viviparous plants are
an illustration of substitution of vegetative buds for flower.

The position of Angiosperms as the highest plant-group is
unassailable, but of the point or points of their origin from the

general stem of the plant kingdom, and of the path
Phytogeny or p^hs f their evolution, we can as yet say little.
taxonomy. Until well on in the Mesozoic period geological history

tells us nothing about Angiosperms, and then only by
their vegetative organs. We readily recognize in them now-a-
days the natural classes of Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons
distinguished alike in vegetative and in reproductive construction,
yet showing remarkable parallel sequences in development;
and we see that the Dicotyledons are the more advanced and
show the greater capacity for further progressive evolution.
But there is no sound basis for the assumption that the Dicoty-
ledons are derived from Monocotyledons; indeed, the palaeonto-
logical evidence seems to point to the Dicotyledons being the
older. This, however, does not entitle us to assume the origin
of Monocotyledons from Dicotyledons, although there is mani-
festly a temptation to connect helobic forms of the former with
ranal ones of the latter. There is no doubt that the phylum of
Angiosperms has not sprung from that of Gymnosperms.

Within each class the flower-characters as the essential feature of
Angiosperms supply the clue to phylogeny, but the uncertainty
regarding the construction of the primitive angiospermous flower
gives a fundamental point of divergence in attempts to construct
progressive sequences of the families. Simplicity of flower-structure
has appeared to some to be always primitive, whilst by others it has
been taken to be always derived. There is, however, abundant
evidence that it may have the one or the other character in different
cases. Apart from this, botanists are generally agreed that the
concrescence of parts of the flower-whorls — in the gynaeceum as
the seed-covering, and in the corolla as the seat of attraction, more
than in the androecium and the calyx — is an indication of advance,
as is also the concrescence that gives the condition of epigyny.
Dorsiventrality is also clearly derived from radial construction, and
anatropy of the ovule has followed atropy. We should expect the
albuminous state of the seed to be an antecedent one to the ex-
albuminous condition, and the recent discoveries in fertilization
tend to confirm this view. Amongst Dicotyledons the gamopetalous
forms are admitted to be the highest development and a dominant
one of our epoch. Advance has been along two lines, markedly in
relation to insect-pollination, one of which has culminated in the

hypogynous epipetalous bicarpellate forms with dorsiventral often
large and loosely arranged flowers such as occur in Scrophulariaceae,
and the other in the epigynous bicarpellate small-flowered families of
which the Compositae represent the most elaborate type. In the
polypetalous forms progression from hypogyny.to epigyny is gener-
ally recognized, and where dorsiventrality with insect-pollination
has been established, a dominant group has been developed as in the
Leguminosae. The starting-point of the class, however, and the
position within it of apetalous families with frequently unisexual
flowers, have provoked much discussion. In Monocotyledons a
similar advance from hypogyny to epigyny is observed, and from the
dorsiventral to the radial type of flower. In this connexion it is
noteworthy that so many of the higher forms are adapted as bulbous
geophytes, or as aerophytes to special xerophilous conditions. The
Gramineae offer a prominent example of a dominant self-pollinated
or wind-pollinated family, and this may find explanation in a
multiplicity of factors.

Though best known for his artificial (or sexual) system, Linnaeus
was impressed with the importance of elaborating a natural system
of arrangement in which plants should be arranged according to
their true affinities. In his Philosophia Botanica (1751) Linnaeus,
grouped the genera then known into sixty-seven orders (fragmenta),
all except five of which are Angiosperms. He gave names to these
but did not characterize them or attempt to arrange them in larger
groups. Some represent natural groups and had in several cases
been already recognized by Ray and others, but the majority are,
in the light of modern knowledge, very mixed. Well-defined poly-
petalous and gamopetalous genera sometimes occur in the same order,
and even Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons are classed together
where they have some striking physiological character in common.

Work on the lines suggested by the Linnaean fragmenta was
continued in France by Bernard de Jussieu and his nephew, Antoine
Laurent, and the arrangement suggested by the latter in his Genera
Plantarum secundum Or dines Naturales disposita (1789) is the first
which can claim to be a natural system. The orders are carefully
characterized, and those of Angiosperms are grouped in fourteen
classes under the two main divisions Monocotyledons and Dicoty-
ledons. The former comprise three classes, which are distinguished
by the relative position of the stamens and ovary; the eleven
classes of the latter are based on the same set of characters and fall
into the larger subdivisions Apetalae, Monopetalae and Polypetalae,
characterized respectively by absence, union or freedom of the
petals, and a subdivision, Diclines Irregulares, a very unnatural group,
including one class only. A. P. de Candolle introduced several
improvements into the system. In his arrangement the last sub-
division disappears, and the Dicotyledons fall into two groups, a
larger containing those in which both calyx and corolla are present
in the flower, and a smaller, Monochlamydeae, representing the
Apetalae and Diclines Irregulares of Jussieu. The dichlamydeous
group is subdivided into three, Thalamiflorae, Calyciflorae and
Corolliflorae, depending on the position and union of the petals.
This, which we may distinguish as the French system, finds its most
perfect expression in the classic Genera Plantarum (1862-1883) of
Bentham and Hooker, a work containing a description, based on
careful examination of specimens, of all known genera of flowering
plants. The subdivision is as follows : —
Dicotyledons.

f Thalamiflorae.
Polypetalae -I Disciflorae.
I Calyciflorae.
[Inferae.
Gamopetalae < Heteromerae.
[Bicarpellatae.
Monochlamydeae in eight series.
Monocotyledons in seven series.

Of the Polypetalae, series 1, Thalamiflorae, is characterized by
hypogynous petals and stamens, and contains 34 orders distributed
in 6 larger groups or cohorts. Series 2, Disciflorae, takes its name
from a development of the floral axis which forms a ring or cushion
at the base of the ovary or is broken up into glands; the ovary is
superior. It contains 23 orders in 4 cohorts. Series 3, Calyciflorae,
has petals and stamens perigynous, or sometimes superior. It
contains 27 orders in 5 cohorts.

Of the Gamopetalae, series 1, Inferae, has an inferior ovary and
stamens usually as many as the corolla-lobes. It contains 9 orders
in 3 cohorts. Series 2, Heteromerae, has generally a superior ovary,
stamens as many as the corolla-lobes or more, and more than two
carpels. It contains 12 orders in 3 cohorts. Series 3, Bicarpellatae,
has generally a superior ovary and usually two carpels. It contains
24 orders in 4 cohorts.

The eight series of Monochlamydeae, containing 36 orders, form
groups characterized mainly by differences in the ovary and ovules,
and are now recognized as of unequal value.

The seven series of Monocotyledons represent a sequence beginning
with the most complicated epigynous orders, such as Orchideae and
Scitamineae, and passing through the pe'taloid hypogynous orders
(series Coronarieae) of which Liliaceae is the representative to
juncaceae and the palms (series Calycinae) where the perianth loses
its petaloid character and thence to the Aroids, screw-pines and

ANGKOR— ANGLE

others where it is more or less aborted (series Nudiflorae). Series 6,
Apocarpeae, is characterized by 5 carpels, and in the last series
Glumaceae, great simplification in the flower is associated with a
grass-like habit.

The sequence of orders in the polypetalous subdivision of Dicoty-
ledons undoubtedly represents a progression from simpler to more
elaborate forms, but a great drawback to the value of the system is
the inclusion among the Monochlamydeae of a number of orders
which are closely allied with orders of Polypetalae though differing
in absence of a corolla. The German systematise A. W. Eichler,
attempted to remove this disadvantage which since the time of
Jussieu had characterized the French system, and in 1883 grouped
the Dicotyledons in two subclasses. The earlier Choripetalae
embraces the Polypetalae and Monochlamydae of the French
systems. It includes 21 series, and is an attempt to arrange as far
as possible in a linear series those orders which are characterized by
absence or freedom of petals. The second subclass, Gamopetalae,
includes 9 series and culminates in those which show the most
elaborate type of flower, the series Aggregatae, the chief representa-
tive of which' is the great and wide-spread order Compositae. A
modification of Eichler's system, embracing the most recent views
of the affinities of the orders of Angiosperms, has been put forward
by Dr Adolf Engler of Berlin, who adopts the suggestive names
Archichlamydeae and Metachlamydeae for the two subdivisions of
Dicotyledons. Dr Engler is the principal editor of a large series of
volumes which, under the title Die naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien, is
a systematic account of all the known genera of plants and represents
the work of many botanists. More recently in Das Pflanzenreich
the same author organized a series of complete monographs of the
families of seed-plants.

As an attempt at a phylogenetic arrangement, Engler's system is
now preferred by many botanists. More recently a startling novelty
in the way of system has been produced by van Tieghem, as follows :
Monocotyledons.
Liorhizal Dicotyledons.
Dicotyledons.

Insemineae.
Semineae.

Unitegmineae.
Bitegmineae.

The most remarkable feature here is the class of Liorhizal Dicoty-
ledons, which includes only the families of Nymphaeaceae and
Gramineae. It is based upon the fact that the histological differentia-
tion of the epidermis of their root is that generally characteristic of
Monocotyledons, whilst they have two cotyledons — the old view of
the epiblast as a second cotyledon in Gramineae being adopted.
But the presence of a second cotyledon in grasses is extremely
doubtful, and though there may be ground for reconsidering the
position of Nymphaeaceae, their association with the grasses as a
distinct class is not warranted by a comparative examination of the
members of the two orders. Ovular characters determine the group-
ing in the Dicotyledons, van Tieghem supporting the view that the
integument, the outer if there be two, is the lamina of a leaf of which
the funicle is the petiole, whilst the nucellus is an outgrowth of this
leaf, and the inner integument, if present, an indusium. The
Insemineae include forms in which the nuceilus is not developed,
and therefore there can be no seed. The plants included are, however,
mainly well-established parasites, and the absence of nucellus is only
one of those characters of reduction to which parasites are liable.
Even if we admit van Tieghem's interpretation of the integuments
to be correct, the diagnostic mark of his unitegminous and biteg-
minous groups is simply that of the absence or presence of an in-
dusium, not a character of great value elsewhere, and, as we know,
the number of the ovular coats is inconstant within the same family.
At the same time the groups based upon the integuments are
of much the same extent as the Polypetalae and Gamopetalae of
other systems. We do not yet know the significance of this correla-
tion, which, however, is not an invariable one, between number of
integuments and union of petals.

Within the last few years Prof. John Coulter and Dr C. J.
Chamberlain of Chicago University have given a valuable general
account of the morphology of Angiosperms as far as concerns the
flower, and the series of events which ends in the formation of the
seed {Morphology of Angiosperms, Chicago, 1903).

Authorities. — The reader will find in the following works details
of the subject and references to the literature: Bentham and
Hooker, Genera Plantarum (London, 1862-1883); Eichler, Bluthen-
diagramme (Leipzig, 1875-1878) ; Engler and Prantl, Die naturlichen
Pflanzenfamilien (Leipzig, 1887-1899); Engler, Syllabus der
Pflanzenfamilien, 3rd ed. (Berlin, 1903) ; Knuth, Handbuch der
Btutenbiologie (Leipzig, 1898, 1899); Sachs, History of Botany,
English ed. (Oxford, 1890); Solereder, Syslematische Anatomie der
Dicotyledonen (Stuttgart, 1899); van Tieghem, Elements de botan-
ique; Coulter and Chamberlain, Morphology of Angiosperms (New
York, 1903). _ (I. B. B.; A. B. R.)

ANGKOR, an assemblage of ruins in Cambodia, the relic of
the ancient Khmer civilization. They are situated in forests
to the north of the Great Lake (Tonle-Sap), the most conspicuous

of the remains being the town of Angkor-Thorn and the temple
of Angkor-Vat, both of which lie on the right bank of the river
Siem-Reap, a tributary of Tonle-Sap. Other remains of the
same form and character lie scattered about the vicinity on
both banks of the river, which is crossed by an ancient stone
bridge.

Angkor-Thorn lies about a quarter of a mile from the river.
According to Aymonier it was begun about a. d. 860, in tht
reign of the Khmer sovereign Jayavarman III., and finished
towards a.d. 900. It consists of a rectangular enclosure, nearly
2 m. in each direction, surrounded by a wall from 20 to 30 ft.
in height. Within the enclosure, which is entered by five monu-
mental gates, are the remains of palaces and temples, overgrown
by the forest. The chief of these are: —

(1) The vestiges of the royal palace, which stood within an
enclosure containing also the pyramidal religious structure
known as the Phimeanakas. To the east of this enclosure there
extends a terrace decorated with magnificent reliefs.

(2) The temple of Bayon, a square enclosure formed by
galleries with colonnades, within which is another and more
elaborate system of galleries, rectangular in arrangement and
enclosing a cruciform structure, at the centre of which rises a
huge tower with a circular base. Fifty towers, decorated
with quadruple faces of Brahma, are built at intervals upon
the galleries, the whole temple ranking as perhaps the most
remarkable of the Khmer remains.

Angkor-Vat, the best preserved example of Khmer architec-
ture, lies less than a mile to the south of the royal city, within
a rectangular park surrounded by a moat, the outer perimeter
of which measures 6060 yds. On the west side of the park a
paved causeway, leading over the moat and under a magnificent
portico, extends for a distance of a quarter of a mile to the chief
entrance of the main building. The temple was originally
devoted to the worship of Brahma, but afterwards to that of
Buddha; its construction is assigned by Aymonier to the first
half of the 1 2th century a.d . It consists of three stages, connected
by numerous exterior staircases and decreasing in dimensions
as they rise, culminating in the sanctuary, a great central tower
pyramidal in form. Towers also surmount the angles of the
terraces of the two upper stages. Three galleries with vault-
ing supported on columns lead from the three western portals
to the second stage. They are connected by a transverse
gallery, thus forming four square basins. Khmer decoration,
profuse but harmonious, consists chiefly in the representa-
tion of gods, men and animals, which are displayed on
every flat surface. Combats and legendary episodes are often
depicted; floral decoration is reserved chiefly for borders,
mouldings 'and capitals. Sandstone of various colours was the
chief material employed by the Khmers; limonite was also used.
The stone was cut into huge blocks which are fitted together
with great accuracy without the use of cement.

See E. Aymonier, Le Cambodge (3 vols., 1900-1904) ; Doudart de
Lagree, Voyage d' exploration en Indo-Chine (1872-1873); A. H.
Mouhot, Travels in Indo-China, Cambodia and Laos (2 vols., 1864);
Fournereau and Porcher, Les Ruines a" Angkor (1890) ; L. Delaporte,
Voyage au Cambodge: V architecture Khmer (1880); J. Moura, Le
Royaume de Cambodge (2 vols., 1883).

ANGLE (from the Lat. angulus, a corner, a diminutive, of
which the primitive form, angus, does not occur in Latin;
cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to
strangle, and the Gr. ay/cos, a bend; both connected with
the Aryan root ank-, to bend: see Angling), in geometry, the
inclination of one line or plane to another. Euclid (Elements,
book 1) defines a plane angle as the inclination to each other, in
a plane, of two lines which meet each other, and do not lie
straight with respect to each other (see Geometry, Euclidean).
According to Proclus an angle must be either a quality or a
quantity, or a relationship. The first concept was utilized by
Eudemus, who regarded an angle as a deviation from a straight
line; the second by Carpus of Antioch, who regarded it as the
interval or space between the intersecting lines; Euclid adopted
the third concept, although his definitions of right, acute, and
obtuse angles are certainly quantitative. A discussion of

ANGLER— ANGLESEY

these concepts and the various definitions of angles in Euclidean
geometry is to be found in W. B. Frankland, The First Book
of Euclid's Elements (ipoj). Following Euclid, a right angle
is formed by a straight line standing upon another straight line
so as to make the adjacent angles equal; any angle less than a
right angle is termed an acute angle, and any angle greater than
a right angle an obtuse angle. The difference between an acute
angle and a right angle is termed the complement of the angle,
and between an angle and two right angles the supplement of the
angle. The generalized view of angles and their measurement
is treated in the article Trigonometry. A solid angle is definable
as the space contained by three or more planes intersecting in
a common point; it is familiarly represented by a corner. The
angle between two planes is termed dihedral, between three
trihedral, between any number more than three polyhedral. A
spherical angle is a particular dihedral angle; it is the angle
between two intersecting arcs on a sphere, and is measured
by the angle between the planes containing the arcs and the
centre of the sphere.

The angle between a line and a curve ( mixed angle) or between
two curves (curvilinear angle) is measured by the angle between
the line and the tangent at the point of intersection, or between the
tangents to both curves at their common point. Various names
(now rarely, if ever, used) have been given to particular cases: — •
amphicyrtic (Gr. a/x<t>i, on both sides, Kvpros, convex) or
cissoidal (Gr. macros, ivy), biconvex; xystroidal or sistroidal
(Gr. %varpLs, a tool for scraping), concavo-convex; amphicoelic
(Gr. Koi\r], a hollow) or angulus lunularis, biconcave.

ANGLER, also sometimes called fishing-frog, frog-fish, sea-
devil (Lophius piscatorius), a fish well known off the coasts of
Great Britain and Europe generally, the grotesque shape of its
body and its singular habits having attracted the attention of
naturalists of all ages. To the North Sea fishermen this fish is
known as the " monk," a name which more properly belongs to
Rhina squatina, a fish allied to the skates. Its head is of enormous
size, broad, flat and depressed, the remainder of the body
appearing merely like an appendage. The wide mouth extends

The Angler {Lophius piscatorius).

all round the anterior circumference of the head; and both
jaws are armed with bands of long pointed teeth, which are
inclined inwards, and can be depressed so as to offer no impedi-
ment to an object gliding towards the stomach, but to prevent
its escape from the mouth. The pectoral and ventral fins are so
articulated as to perform the functions of feet, the fish being
enabled to move, or rather to walk, on the bottom of the sea,
where it generally hides itself in the sand or amongst sea-weed.
All round its head and also along the body the skin bears
fringed appendages resembling short fronds of sea-weed, a
structure which, combined with the extraordinary faculty of
assimilating the colcur of the body to its surroundings, assists
this fish greatly in concealing itself in places which it selects
on account of the abundance of prey. To render the organization
of this creature perfect in relation to its wants, it is provided with
three lohg filaments inserted along the middle of the head,
which are, in fact, the detached and modified three first spines
of the anterior dorsal fin. The filament most important in the
economy of the angler is the first, which is the longest, terminates
in a lappet, and is movable in every direction. The angler is

believed to attract other fishes by means of its lure, and then to
seize them with its enormous, jaws. It is probable enough thai
smaller fishes are attracted in this way, but experiments have
shown that the action of the jaws is automatic and depends
on contact of the prey with the tentacle. Its stomach is disten-
sible in an extraordinary degree, and not rarely fishes have
been taken out quite as large and heavy as their destroyer. It
grows to a length of more than 5 ft.; specimens of 3 ft. are
common. The spawn of the angler is very remarkable. It
consists of a thin sheet of transparent gelatinous material 2 or 3 ft.
broad and 25 to 30 ft. in length. The eggs in this sheet are in a
single layer, each in its own little cavity. The spawn is free in
the sea. The larvae are free-swimming and have the pelvic fins
elongated into filaments. The British species is found all round
the coasts of Europe and western North America, but becomes
scarce beyond 6o° N. lat.; it occurs also on the coasts of the
Cape of Good Hope. A second species {Lophius budegassa)
inhabits the Mediterranean, and a third {L. seligerus) the coasts of
China and Japan.

ANGLESEY, ARTHUR ANNESLEY, 1st Earl of (1614-1686),
British statesman, son of the 1st Viscount Valentia (cr. 1621)
and Baron Mountnorris (cr. 1628), and of Dorothy, daughter
of Sir John Philipps of Picton Castle, Pembrokeshire, was born
at Dublin on the 10th of July 1614, was educated at Magdalen
College, Oxford, and was admitted to Lincoln's Inn in 1634.
Having made the grand tour he returned to Ireland; and being
employed by the parliament in a mission to the duke of Ormonde,
now reduced to the last extremities, he succeeded in conclud-
ing a treaty with him on the 19th of June 1647, thus securing
the country from complete subjection to the rebels. In April
1647 he was returned for Radnorshire to the House of Commons.
He supported the parliamentary as against the republican or
army party, and appears to have been one of the members
excluded in 1648. He sat in Richard Cromwell's parliament
for Dublin city, and endeavoured to take his seat in the restored
Rump Parliament of 1659. He was made president of the council
in February 1660, and in the Convention Parliament sat for
Carmarthen borough. The anarchy of the last months of the
commonwealth converted him to royalism, and he showed great
activity in bringing about the Restoration. He used his influence
in moderating measures of revenge and violence, and while
sitting in judgment on the regicides was 01- the side of leniency.
In November 1660 by his father's death he had become Viscount
Valentia and Baron Mountnorris in the Irish peerage, and on
the 20th April 1661 he was created Baron Annesley of Newport
Pagnell in Buckinghamshire and earl of Anglesey in the peerage
of Great Britain. He supported the king's administration in
parliament, but opposed strongly the unjust measure which, on
the abolition of the court of wards, placed the extra burden of
taxation thus rendered necessary on the excise. His services
in the administration of Ireland were especially valuable. He
filled the office of vice- treasurer from 1660 till 1667, served on
the committee for carrying out the declaration for the settlement
of Ireland and on the committee for Irish affairs, while later, in
167 1 and 1672, he was a leading member of various commissions
appointed to investigate the working of the Acts of Settlement.
In February 1661 he had obtained a captaincy of horse, and
in 1667 he exchanged his vice-treasuryship of Ireland for the
treasuryship of the navy. His public career was marked by
great independence and fidelity to principle. On the 24th of July
1 663 he alone signed a protest against the bill" for the encourage-
ment of trade," on the plea that owing to the free export of coin
and bullion allowed by the act, and to the importation of foreign
commodities being greater than the export of home goods,
" it must necessarily follow . . . that our silver will also be
carried away into foreign parts and all trade fail for want of
money." 1 He especially disapproved of another clause in the
same bill forbidding the importation of Irish cattle into England,
a mischievous measure promoted by the duke of Buckingham, and
he opposed again the bill brought in with that object in January

1 Protests of the Lords, by J. E. Thorold Rogers (1875), i. 27:
Carti's Life of Ormonde (1851), iv. 234; Pari. Hist. iv. 284.

ANGLESEY

1667. This same year his naval accounts were subjected to an
examination in consequence of his jndignant refusal to take part
in the attack upon Ormonde; 1 and he was suspended from his
office in 1 668, no charge,however, against him being substantiated.
He took a prominent part in the dispute in 167 1 between the two
Houses concerning the right of the Lords to amend money
bills, and wrote a learned pamphlet on the question entitled
The Privileges of the House of Lords and Commons (1702), in
which the right of the Lords was asserted. In April 1673 he was
appointed lord privy seal, and was disappointed at not obtaining
the great seal the same year on the removal of Shaftesbury. In
1679 he was included in Sir W. Temple's new-modelled council.

In the bitter religious controversies of the time Anglesey
showed great moderation and toleration. In 1674 he is men-
tioned as endeavouring to prevent the justices putting into Torce
the laws against the Roman Catholics and Nonconformists. 2
In the panic of the " Popish Plot " in 1678 he exhibited a saner
judgment than most of his contemporaries and a conspicuous
courage. On the 6th of December he protested with three
other peers against the m asure sent up from the Commons
enforcing the disarming of all convicted recusants and taking
bail from them to keep the peace; he was the only peer to dissent
from the motion declaring the existence of an Irish plot; and
though believing in the guilt and voting for the death of Lord
Stafford, he interceded, according to his own account, 3 with
the king for him as well as for Langhorne and Plunket. His
independent attitude drew upon him an attack by Dangerfield,
and in the Commons by the attorney-general, Sir W. Jones,
who accused him of endeavouring to stifle the evidence against
the Romanists. In March 1679 he protested against the second
reading of the bill for disabling Danby. In 1681 Anglesey
wrote A Letter from a Person of Honour in the Country, as a
rejoinder to the earl of Castlehaven, who had published memoirs
on the Irish rebellion defending the action of the Irish and the
Roman Catholics. In so doing Anglesey was held by Ormonde
to have censured his conduct and that of Charles I. in concluding
the " Cessation," and the duke brought the matter before the
council. In 1682 he wrote The Account of Arthur, Earl of
Anglesey . . . of the true state of Your Majesty's Government and
Kingdom, which was addressed to the king in a tone of censure
and remonstrance, but appears not to have been printed till
1694. 4 In consequence he was dismissed on the 9th of August
1682 from the office of lord privy seal. In 1683 he appeared
at the Old Bailey as a witness in defence of Lord Russell, and
in June 1685 he protested alone against the revision of Stafford's
attainder. He died at his home at Blechingdon in Oxfordshire
on the 26th of April 1686, closing a career marked by great
ability, statesmanship and business capacity, and by con-
spicuous courage and independence of judgment. He amassed
a large fortune in Ireland, in which country he had been allotted
lands by Cromwell.

The unfavourable character drawn of him by Burnet is
certainly unjust and not supported by any evidence. Pepys,
a far more trustworthy judge, speaks of him invariably in terms
of respect and approval as a " grave, serious man," and com-
mends his appointment as treasurer of the navy as that of
"a very notable man and understanding and will do things
regular and understand them himself." 5 He was a learned
and cultivated man and collected a celebrated library, which
was dispersed at his death. Besides the pamphlets already
mentioned, he wrote: — A True Account of the Whole Proceedings
betwixt . . .the Duke of Ormond and . . . the Earl of Anglesey
(1682); A Letter of Remarks upon Jovian (1683); other works
ascribed to him being The King's Right of Indulgence in Matters
Spiritual . . . asserted (1688) ; Truth Unveiled, to which is
added a short Treatise on . . . Transubstantiation (1676) ; The
Obligation resulting from the Oath of Supremacy (1688); and

1 Carti's Ormonde, iv. 330, 340.

1 Cat. of State Pap. Dom. (1673-1675), p. 152. 3 Memoirs, 8, 9.
' By Sir J. Thompson, his son-in-law. Reprinted in Somers Tracts
(Scott, 1812), viii. 344, and in Pari. Hist. iv. app. xvi.
1 Diary (ed. Wheatley, 19.04), iv. 298, vii. 14.

England's Confusion (1659). Memoirs of Lord Anglesey were
published by Sir P. Pett in 1693, but contain little biographical
information and were repudiated as a, mere imposture by Sit
John Thompson (Lord Haversham), his son-in-law, in his preface
to Lord Anglesey's State of the Government in 1694. The authoJ
however of the preface to The Rights of the Lords asserted (1702),
while blaming their publication as "scattered and unfinished
papers," admits their genuineness.

Lord Anglesey married Elizabeth, daughter and co-heiress
of Sir James Altham of Oxey, Hertfordshire, by whom, besides
other children, he had James, who succeeded him, Altham,
created Baron Altham, and Richard, afterwards 3rd Baron
Altham. His descendant Richard, the 6th earl (d. 1761), left
a son Arthur, whose legitimacy was doubted, and the peerage
became extinct. He was summoned to the Irish House of Peers
as Viscount Valentia, but was denied his writ to the parliament
of Great Britain by a majority of one vote. He was created
in 1793 earl of Mountnorris in the peerage of Ireland. All the
male descendants of the 1st earl of Anglesey became extinct
in the person of George, 2nd earl of Mountnorris, in 1844, when
the titles of Viscount Valentia and Baron Mountnorris passed
to his cousin Arthur Annesley (1785-1863), who thus became
10th Viscount Valentia, being descended from the 1st Viscount
Valentia. the father of the 1st earl of Anglesey in the Annesley
family. The 1st viscount was also the ancestor of the Earls
Annesley in the Irish peerage.

Authorities. — Diet, of Nat. Biography, with authorities there
collected; lives in Wood's Athenae Oxonienses (Bliss), iv. 181,
Biographia Britannica, and H. Walpole's Royal and Noble Authors
(1806), iii. 288 (the latter a very inadequate review of Anglesey's
character and career) ; also Biblioiheca A nglesiana . . . perThomam
Philippum (1686) ; The Happy Future State of England, by Sir Peter
Pett (1688); Great News from Poland (1683), where his religious
tolerance is ridiculed; Somers Tracts (Scott, 1812), viii. 344; Notes
of the Privy Council (Roxburghe Club, 1896) ; Cat. of State Papers,
Dom.;State Trials, viii. and ix. 619. (P. C. Y.)

ANGLESEY, HENRY WILLIAM PAGET, 1st Marquess of
(1768-1854), British field-marshal, was born on the 17th of May
1 768. He was the eldest son of Henry Paget, 1st earl of Uxbridge
(d. 1812), and was educated at Westminster School and Christ
Church, Oxford, afterwards entering parliament in 1790 as
member for Carnarvon, for which he sat for six years. At the
outbreak of the French Revolutionary wars Lord Paget (as he
was then styled), who had already served in the militia, raised
on his father's estate the regiment of Staffordshire volunteers, in
which he was given the temporary rank of lieutenant-colonel
(1793). The corps soon became part of the regular army as the
80th Foot, and it took part, under Lord Paget's command, in
the Flanders campaign of 1794. In spite of his youth he held a
brigade command for a time, and gained also, during the campaign,
his first experience of the cavalry arm, with which he was thence-
forward associated. His substantive commission as lieutenant-
colonel of the 1 6th Light Dragoons bore the date of the
15th of June 1795, and in 1796 he was made a colonel
in the army. In 1795 he married Lady Caroline Elizabeth
Villiers, daughter of the earl of Jersey. In April 1797 Lord
Paget was transferred to a lieut.-colonelcy in the 7th Light
Dragoons, of which regiment he became colonel in 1801. From
the first he applied himself strenously to the improvement of
discipline, and to the perfection of a new system of cavalry
evolutions. In the short campaign of 1799 in Holland, Paget
commanded the cavalry brigade, and in spite of the unsuitable
character of the ground, he made, on several occasions, brilliant
and successful charges. After the return of the expedition, he
devoted himself zealously to his regiment, which under his
command became one of the best corps in the service. In 1802
he was promoted major-general, and six years later lieutenant-
general. In command of the cavalry of Sir John Moore's army
during the Corunna campaign, Lord Paget won the -greatest
distinction. At Sahagun, Mayorga and Benavente, the British
cavalry behaved so well under his leadership that Moore wrote : —
" It is impossible for me to say too much in its praise. . . . Our
cavalry is very superior in quality to any the French have, and

ANGLESEY

the right spirit has been infused into them by the example and
instruction of their . . . leaders . . . ." At Benavente one of
Napoleon's best cavalry leaders, General Lefebvre Desnoettes,
was taken prisoner. Corunna was Paget's last service in the
Peninsula. His liaison with the wife of Henry Wellesley, after-
wards Lord Cowley, made it impossible at that time for him to
serve with Wellington, whose cavalry, on many occasions during
the succeeding campaigns, felt the want of the true cavalry
leader to direct them. His only war service from 1809 to 181 5
was in the disastrous Walcheren expedition (1809) in which he
commanded a division. During these years he occupied himself
with his parliamentary duties as member for Milborne Port,
which he represented almost continuously up to his father's
death in 18 12, when he took his seat in the House of Lords as
earl of Uxbridge. In 18 10 he was divorced and married Mrs
Wellesley, who had about the same time been divorced from her
husband. Lady Paget was soon afterwards married to the duke
of Argyll. In 181 5 Lord Uxbridge received command of the
British cavalry in Flanders. At a moment of danger such as
that of Napoleon's return from Elba, the services of the best
cavalry general in the British army could not be neglected.
Wellington placed the greatest confidence in him, and on the eve
of Waterloo extended his command so as to include the whole of
the allied cavalry and horse artillery. He covered the retirement
of the allies from Quatre Bras to Waterloo on the 17th of June,
and on the 18th gained the crowning distinction of his military
career in leading the great cavalry charge of the British centre,
which checked and in part routed D'Erlon's corps d'armee (see
Waterloo Campaign) . Freely exposing his own life throughout,
the earl received, by one of the last cannon shots fired, a severe
wound in the leg, necessitating amputation. Five days later
the prince regent created him marquess of Anglesey in recognition
of his brilliant services, which were regarded universally as
second only to those of the duke himself. He was made a G.C.B.
and he was also decorated by many of the allied sovereigns.

In 1818 the marquess was made a knight of the Garter, in 1819
he became full general, and at the coronation of George IV. he
acted as lord high steward of England. His support of the
proceedings against Queen Caroline made him for a time un-
popular, and when he was on one occasion beset by a crowd, who
compelled him to shout " The Queen," he added the wish, " May
all your wives be like her." At the close of April 1827 he became
a member of the Canning administration, taking the post of
master-general of the ordnance, previously held by Wellington.
He was at the same time sworn a member of the privy council.
Under the Wellington administration he accepted the appoint-
ment of lord-lieutenant of Ireland (March 1828), and in the
discharge of his important duties he greatly endeared himself
to the Irish people. The spirit in which he acted and the aims
which he steadily set before himself contributed to the allaying
of party animosities, to the promotion of a willing submission
to the laws, to the prosperity of trade and to the extension and
improvement of education. On the great question of the time
his views were opposed to those of the government. He saw
clearly that the time was come when the relief of the Catholics
from the penal legislation of the past was an indispensable
measure, and in December 1828 he addressed a letter to the
Roman Catholic primate of Ireland distinctly announcing his
view. This led to his recall by the government, a step sincerely
lamented by the Irish. He pleaded for Catholic emancipation
in parliament, and on the formation of Earl Grey's administration
in November 1830, he again became lord-lieutenant of Ireland.
The times were changed; the act of emancipation had been
passed, and the task of viceroy in his second tenure of office was
to resist the agitation for repeal of the union carried on by
O'Connell. He felt it his duty now to demand Coercion Acts for
the security of the public peace; his popularity was diminished,
differences appeared in the cabinet on the difficult subject, and
in July 1833 the ministry resigned. To the marquess of Anglesey
Ireland is indebtedfor the board of education, the origination of
which may perhaps be reckoned as the most memorable act of
his viceroyalty. For thirteen years after his retirement he

remained out of office, and took little part in the affairs of govern-
ment. He joined the Russell administration in July 1846 as
master-general of the ordnance, finally retiring with his chief in
March 1852. His promotion in the army was completed by his
advancement to the rank of field-marshal in 1846. Four years
before, he exchanged his colonelcy of the 7th Light Dragoons
which he had held over forty years, for that of the Royal Horse
Guards. He died on the 29th of April 1854.

The marquess had a large family by each of his two wives, two
sons and six daughters by the first and six sons and four daughters
by the second. His eldest son, Henry, succeeded him in the
marquessate; but the title passed rapidly in succession to the 3rd,
4th and 5th marquesses. The latter, whose extravagances were
notorious, died in 1905, when the title passed to his cousin.

Other members of the Paget family distinguished themselves
in the army and the navy. Of the first marquess's brothers one,
Sir Charles Paget (1778-1839), rose to the rank of vice-admiral
in the Royal Navy; another, General Sir Edward Paget
(1 775-1849), won great distinction by his skilful and resolute
handling of a division at Corunna, and from 1822 to 1825 was
commander-in-chief in India. One of the marquess's sons by his
second marriage, Lord Clarence Edward Paget (1811-1895),
became an admiral; another, Lord George Augustus
Frederick Paget (1818-1880), led the 4th Light Dragoons in the
charge of the Light Brigade at Balaklava, and subsequently
commanded the brigade, and, for a short time, the cavalry
division in the Crimea. In 1865 he was made inspector-general
of cavalry, in 1871 lieutenant-general and K.C.B., and in 1877
full general. His Crimean journals were published in 1881.

ANGLESEY, or Anglesea, an insular northern county of Wales.
Its area is 176,630 acres or about 276 sq. m. Anglesey, in the see
of Bangor, is separated from the mainland by the Menai Straits
(Afon Menai), over which were thrown Telford's suspension
bridge, in 1826, and the Stephenson tubular railway bridge in
1850. The county is flat, with slight risings such as Parys, Cadair
Mynachdy (or Monachdy, i.e. "chair of the monastery"; there
is a Nanner, " convent," not far away) and Holyhead Mountain.
There are a few lakes, such as Cors cerrig y daran, but rising water
is generally scarce. The climate is humid, the land poor for the
most part compared with its old state of fertility, and there are
few industries.

As regards geology, the younger strata in Anglesey rest upon a
foundation of very old pre-Cambrian rocks which appear at the
surface in three areas: — (1) a western region including Holyhead
and Llanfaethlu, (2) a central area about Aberffraw and Tref-
draeth, and (3) an eastern region which includes Newborough,
Caerwen and Pentraeth. These pre-Cambrian rocks are schists
and slates, often much contorted and disturbed. The general line
of strike of the formations in the island is from N.E. to S.W. A
belt of granitic rocks lies immediately north-west of the central
pre-Cambrian mass, reaching from Llanfaelog near the coast to
the vicinity of Llanerchymedd. Between this granite and the
pre-Cambrian of Holyhead is a narrow tract of Ordovician slates
and grits with Llandovery beds in places; this tract spreads out
in the N. of the island between Dulas Bay and Carmel Point. A
small patch of Ordovician strata lies on the northern side of
Beaumaris. In parts, these Ordovician rocks are much folded,
crushed and metamorphosed, and they are associated with schists
and altered volcanic rocks which are probably pre-Cambrian.
Between the eastern and central pre-Cambrian masses carboni-
ferous rocks are found. The carboniferous limestone occupies a
broad area S. of Ligwy Bay and Pentraeth, and sends a narrow
spur in a south-westerly direction by Llangefni to Malldraeth
sands. The limestone is underlain on the N. W. by a red basement
conglomerate and yellow sandstone (sometimes considered to be
of Old Red Sandstone age). Limestone occurs again on the N.
coast about Llanfihangel and Llangoed; and in the S.W. round
Llanidan on the border of the Menai Strait. Puffin Island is
made of carboniferous limestone. Malldraeth Marsh is occupied
by coal measures, and a small patch of the same formation appears
near Tall-y-foel Ferry on the Menai Straits. A patch of granitic
and felsitic rocks form Parys Mountain, where copper and iron

ANGLESITE— ANGLI

ochre have been worked. Serpentine (Mona Marble) is found
near Llanfaerynneubwll and upon the opposite shore in Holyhead.
There are abundant evidences of glaciation, and much boulder
clay and drift sand covers the older rocks. Patches of blown sand
occur on the S.W. coast.

The London & North-Western railway (Chester and Holy-
head branch) crosses Anglesey from Llanfairpwllgwyngyll to
Gaerwen and Holyhead (Caer Gybi), also from Gaerwen to
Amlwch. The staple of the island is farming, the chief crops
being turnips, oats, potatoes, with flax in the centre. Copper
(near Amlwch), lead, silver, marble, asbestos, lime and sandstone,
marl, zinc and coal have all been worked in Anglesey, coal
especially at Malldraeth and Trefdraeth. The population of the
county in iooi was 50,606. There is no parliamentary borough,
but one member is returned for the county. It is in the north-
western circuit, and assizes are held at Beaumaris, the only
municipal borough (pop. 2326). Amlwch (2994), Holyhead
(10,079), Llangefni (1751) and Menai Bridge (Pont y Borth,
1 700) are urban districts. There are six hundreds and seventy-
eight parishes.

Mon (a cow) is the Welsh name of Anglesey, itself a corrupted
form of O.E., meaning the Isle of the Angles. Old Welsh names
are Ynys Dywyll (" Dark Isle ") and Ynys y cedairn (cedyrn or
kedyrn; " Isle of brave folk "). It is the Mona of Tacitus (Ann.
xiv. 29, Agr. xiv. 18), Pliny the Elder (iv. 16) and Dio Cassius
(62). It is called Mam Cymru by Giraldus Cambrensis. Clas
Merddin, Y vel Ynys (honey isle), Ynys Prydein, Ynys Brut are
other names. According to the Triads (67), Anglesey was once
part of the mainland, as geology proves. The island was the seat
of the Druids, of whom 28 cromlechs remain, on uplands over-
looking the sea, e.g. at Plas Newydd. The Druids were attacked
in a.d. 61 by Suetonius Paulinus, and by Agricola in a.d. 78. In
the 5th century Caswallon lived here, and here, at Aberffraw, the
princes of G wy nedd lived till 1 2 7 7 . The present road from Holyhead
to Llanfairpwllgwyngyll is originally Roman. British and Roman
camps, coins and ornaments have been dug up and discussed,
especially by the Hon. Mr Stanley of Penrhos. Pen Caer Gybi is
Roman. The island was devastated by the Danes (Dub Gint or
black nations, genies), especially in a.d. 853.

See Edw. Breese, Kalendar of Gwynedd (Venedocia), on Anglesey,
Carnarvon and Merioneth (London, 1873) ; and The History of
Powys Fadog.

ANGLESITE, a mineral consisting of lead sulphate, PbS0 4 ,
crystallizing in the orthorhombic system, and isomorphous with
barytes and celestite. It was first recognized as a mineral species
by Dr Withering in 1783, who discovered it in the Parys copper-
mine in Anglesey; the name anglesite, from this locality, was
given by F. S. Beudant in 1832. The crystals from Anglesey,
which were formerly found abundantly on a matrix of dull
limonite, are small in size and simple in form, being usually
bounded by four faces of a prism and four faces of a dome; they
are brownish-yellow in colour owing to a stain of limonite.
Crystals from some other localities, notably from Monteponi in
Sardinia, are transparent and colourless, possessed of a brilliant
adamantine lustre, and usually modified by numerous bright
faces. The variety of combinations and
habits presented by the crystals is very
extensive, nearly two hundred distinct
forms being figured by V. von Lang in
his monograph of the species; without
measurement of the angles the crystals
are frequently difficult to decipher. The
haidness is 3 and the specific gravity 6-3. There are distinct
cleavages parallel to the faces of the prism jnof and the
basal plane \ 001 } , but these are not so well developed as in
the isomorphous minerals barytes and celestite.

Anglesite is a mineral of secondary origin, having been formed
by the oxidation of galena in the upper parts of mineral lodes
where these have been affected by weathering processes. At
Monteponi the crystals encrust cavities in glistening granular
galena; and from Leadhills, in Scotland, pseudomorphs of
anglesite after galena are known. At most localities it is found

as isolated crystals in the lead-bearing lodes, but at some places,
in Australia and Mexico, it occurs as large masses, and is then
mined as an ore of lead, of which the pure mineral contains 68 %.

ANGLI, Anglii or Angles, a Teutonic people mentioned
by Tacitus in his Germania (cap. 40) at the end of the 1st century.
He gives no precise indication of their geographical position,
but states that, together with six, other tribes, including the
Varini (the Warni of later times), they worshipped a goddess
named Nerthus, whose sanctuary was situated on " an island
in the Ocean." Ptolemy in his Geography (ii. n. § 15), half a
century later, locates them with more precision between the
Rhine, or rather perhaps the Ems, and the Elbe, and speaks of
them as one of the chief tribes of the interior. Unfortunately,
however, it is clear from a comparison of his map with the evidence
furnished by Tacitus and other Roman writers that the indica-
tions which he gives cannot be correct. Owing to the uncertainty
of these passages there has been much speculation regarding
the original home of the Angli. One theory, which however has
little to recommend it, is that they dwelt in the basin of the
Saale (in the neighbourhood of the canton Engilin), from which
region the Lex Angliorum et Werinorum hoc est Thuringorum
is believed by many to have come. At the present time the
majority of scholars believe that the Angli had lived from the
beginning on the coasts of the Baltic, probably in the southern
part of the Jutish peninsula. The evidence for this view is
derived partly from English and Danish traditions dealing
with persons and events of the 4th century (see below), and
partly from the fact that striking affinities to the cult of Nerthus
as described by Tacitus are to be found in Scandinavian, especially
Swedish and Danish, religion. Investigations in this subject
have rendered it very probable that the island of Nerthus was
Sjaelland (Zealand), and it is further to be observed that the
kings of Wessex traced their ancestry ultimately to a certain
Scyld, who is clearly to be identified with Skioldr, the mythical
founder of the Danish royal family (Skioldungar). In English
tradition this person is connected with " Scedeland " (pi.),
a name which may have been applied to Sjaelland as well as
Skane, while in Scandinavian tradition he is specially associated
with the ancient royal residence at Leire in Sjaelland.

Bede states that the Angli before they came to Britain dwelt
in a land called Angulus, and similar evidence is given by the
Historia Brittonwm. King Alfred and the chronicler ^Ethelweard
identified this place with the district which is now called Angel
in the province of Schleswig (Slesvig), though it may then have
been of greater extent, and this identification agrees very well
with the indications given by Bede. Full confirmation is afforded
by English and Danish traditions relating to two kings named
Wermund (q.v.) and Off a (q.v.), from whom the Mercian royal
family were descended, and whose exploits are connected with
Angel, Schleswig and Rendsburg. Danish tradition has pre-
served record of two governors of Schleswig, father and son,
in their service, Frowinus (Freawine) and Wigo (Wig), from
whom the royal family of Wessex claimed descent. During the
5th century the Angli invaded this country (see Britain, Anglo-
Saxon), after which time their name does not recur on the con-
tinent except in the title of the code mentioned above.

The province of Schleswig has proved exceptionally rich in
prehistoric antiquities which date apparently from the 4th and
5th centuries. Among the places where these have been found,
special mention should be made of the large cremation cemetery
at Borgstedterfeld, between Rendsburg and Eckernforde,
which has yielded many urns and brooches closely resembling
those found in heathen graves in England. Of still greater
importance are the great deposits at Thorsbjaerg (in Angel)
and Nydam, which contained large quantities of arms, ornaments,
articles of clothing, agricultural implements, &c, and in the
latter case even ships. By the help of these discoveries we are
able to reconstruct a fairly detailed picture of English civilization
in the age preceding the invasion of Britain.

Authorities. — Bede, Hist. Ecc. i. 15: King Alfred's version of
Orosius, i. I.. §§ 12, 19; ^Ethelweard's Chronicle, lib. i. For traditions
concerning the kings of Angel, see under Offa (i). L. Weiland,

ANGLICAN COMMUNION

J 9

Die Angeln (1889); A. Erdmann, tfber die Heimat und den Namen
der Angeln (Upsala, 1890 — cf. H. Moller in the Anzeiger fur deutsches
Altertum und deutsche Litteratur, xxii. 129 ff.) ; A. Kock in the
Historisk Tidskrift (Stockholm), 1895, xv. p. 163 ff. ; G. Schiitte,
Var Anglerne Tyskere? (Flensborg, 1900) ; H. Munro Chadwick,
Tlie Origin of the English Nation (Cambridge, 1907); C. Engelhardt,
Denmark in the Early Iron Age (London, 1866); J. Mestorf, Urnen-
friedhofe in Schleswig-Holstein (Hamburg, 1886) ; S. Miiller, Nordische
A Itertumskundc (Ger. trans., Strassburg, 1898), ii. p. 122 ff. ; see
further Anglo-Saxons and Britain, Anglo-Saxon. (H. M. C.)

ANGLICAN COMMUNION, the name used to denote that
great branch of the Christian Church consisting of the various
churches in communion with the Church of England. The
necessity for such a phrase as " Anglican Communion," first used
in the 19th century, marked at once the immense development
of the Anglican Church in modern times and the change which
his taken place in the traditional conceptions of its character
and sphere. The Church of England itself is the subject of a
separate article (see England, Church of); and it is not
without significance that for more than two centuries after the
Reformation the history of Anglicanism is practically confined
to its developments within the limits of the British Isles. Even
in Ireland, where it was for over three centuries the established
religion, and in Scotland, where it early gave way to the dominant
Fresbyterianism, its religious was long overshadowed by its
political significance. The Church, in fact, while still claiming to
be Catholic in its creeds and in its religious practice, had ceased
to be Catholic in its institutional conception, which was now
bound up with a particular state and also with a particular
conception of that state. To the native Irishman and the Scots-
man, as indeed to most Englishmen, the Anglican Church wasone
of the main buttresses of the supremacy of the English crown
and nation. This conception of the relations of church and state
was hardly favourable to missionary zeal; and in the age succeed-
ing the Reformation there was no disposition on the part of the
English Church to emulate the wonderful activity of the Jesuits,
which, in the 16th and 17th centuries, brought to the Church
of Rome in countries beyond the ocean compensation for what
she had lost in Europe through the Protestant reformation.
Even when English churchmen passed beyond the seas, they
carried with them their creed, but not their ecclesiastical organiza-
tion. Prejudice and real or imaginary legal obstacles stood
in the way of the erection of episcopal sees in the colonies; and
though in the 17th century Archbishop Laud had attempted
to obtain a bishop for Virginia, up to the time of the American
revolution the churchmen of the colonies had to make the best
of the legal fiction that their spiritual needs were looked after
by the bishop of London, who occasionally sent commissaries
to visit them and ordained candidates for the ministry sent to
England for the purpose.

The change which has made it possible for Anglican churchmen
to claim that their communion ranks with those of Rome and
the Orthodox East as one of the three great historical divisions
of the Catholic Church, was due, in the first instance, to the
American revolution. The severance of the colonies from their
allegiance to the crown brought the English bishops for the first
time face to face with the idea of an Anglican Church which
should have nothing to do either with the royal supremacy
or with British nationality. When, on the conclusion of peace,
the church-people of Connecticut sent Dr Samuel Seabury to
England, with a request to the archbishop of Canterbury to
consecrate him, it is not surprising that Archbishop Moore
refused. In the opinion of prelates and lawyers alike, an act of
parliament was necessary before a bishop could be consecrated
for a see abroad; to consecrate one for a foreign country seemed
impossible, since, though the bestowal of the poteslas ordinis
would be valid, the crown, which, according to the law, was the
source of the episcopal jurisdiction, could hardly issue the
necessary mandate for the consecration of a bishop to a sec
outside the realm (see Bishop). The Scottish bishops, however,
being hampered by no such legal restrictions, were more amen-
able; and on the nth of November 1784 Seabury was con-
secrated by them to the see of Connecticut. In 1786, on the

initiative of the archbishop, the legal difficulties in England
were removed by the act for the consecration of bishops abroad ;
and, on being satisfied as to the orthodoxy of the church in
America and the nature of certain liturgical changes in con-
templation, the two English archbishops proceeded, on the
14th of February 1787, to consecrate William White and Samuel
Prevoost to the sees of Pennsylvania and New York (see
Protestant Episcopal Church).

This act had a significance beyond the fact that it established
in the United States of America a flourishing church, which,
while completely loyal to its own country, is bound by special
ties to the religious life of England. It marked the emergence
of the Church of England from that insularity to which what may
be called the territorial principles of the Reformation had
condemned her. The change was slow, and it is not yet by any
means complete.

Since the Church of England, whatever her attitude towards
the traditional Catholic doctrines, never disputed the validity
of Catholic orders whether Roman or Orthodox, nor the juris-
diction of Catholic bishops in foreign countries, the expansion
of the Anglican Church has been in no sense conceived as a
Protestant aggressive movement against Rome. Occasional
exceptions, such as the consecration by Archbishop Plunket
of Dublin of a bishop for the reformed church in Spain, raised
so strong a protest as to prove the rule. In the main, then,
the expansion of the Anglican Church has followed that of the
British empire, or, as in America, of its daughter states; its
claim, so far as rights of jurisdiction are concerned, is to be the
Church of England and the English race, while recognizing its
special duties towards the non-Christian populations subject
to the empire or brought within the reach of its influence. As
against the Church of Rome, with its system of rigid centraliza-
tion, the Anglican Church represents the principle of local
autonomy, which it holds to be once more primitive and more
catholic. In this respect the Anglican communion has developed
on the lines defined in her articles at the Reformation; but,
though in principle there is no great difference between a
church defined by national, and a church defined by racial
boundaries, there is an immense difference in effect, especially
when the race — as in the case of the English — is itself
ecumenical.

The realization of what may be called this catholic mission
of the English church, in the extension of its organization to
the colonies, was but a slow process.

On the 12th of August 1787 Dr Charles Inglis was consecrated
bishop of Nova Scotia, with jurisdiction over all the British
possessions in North America. In 1793 the see of j-he
Quebec was founded; Jamaica and Barbados followed Church
in 1824, and Toronto and Newfoundland in 1839. I ^ t . he .
Meanwhile the needs of India has $>een tardily met, on
the urgent representations in parliament of William Wilberforce
and others, by the consecration of Dr T. F. Middleton as bishop
of Calcutta, with three archdeacons to assist him. In 181 7 Ceylon
was added to his charge; in 1823 all British subjects in the East
Indies and the islands of the Indian Ocean; and in 1824 "New
South Wales and its dependencies"! Some five years later, on
the nomination of the duke of Wellington, William Broughton
was sent out to work in this enormous jurisdiction as archdeacon
of Australia. Soon afterwards, in 1835 and 1837, the sees of
Madras and Bombay were founded; whilst in 1836 Broughton
himself was consecrated as first bishop of Australia. Thus down
to 1840 there were but ten colonial bishops; and of these several
were so hampered by civil regulations that they were little more
than government chaplains in episcopal orders. In April of
that year, however, Bishop Blomfield of London published his
famous letter to the archbishop of Canterbury, declaring that
" an episcopal church without a bishop is a contradiction in
terms," and strenuously advocating a great eftort for the extension
of the episcopate. It was not in vain. The plan was taken up
with enthusiasm, and on Whitsun Tuesday of 1841 the bishops
of the United Kingdom met and issued a declaration
which inaugurated the Colonial Bishoprics Council. Subsequent

ANGLICAN COMMUNION

declarations in 1872 and 1891 have served both to record progress
and to stimulate to new effort. The diocese of New Zealand
was founded in 1841, being endowed by the Church Missionary-
Society through the council, and George Augustus Selwyn was
chosen as the first bishop. Since then the increase has gone on,
as the result both of home effort and of the action of the colonial
churches. Moreover, in many cases bishops have been sent to
inaugurate new missions, as in the cases of the Universities'
Mission to Central Africa, Lebombo, Corea and New Guinea;
and the missionary jurisdictions so founded develop in time
into dioceses. Thus, instead of the ten colonial jurisdictions of
1 84 1, there are now about a hundred foreign and colonial
jurisdictions, in addition to those of the Protestant Episcopal
Church of the United States.

It was only very gradually that these dioceses acquired
legislative independence and a determinate organization. At
first, sees were created and bishops were nominated by the
crown by means of letters patent; and in some cases an income
was assigned out of public funds. Moreover, for many years
all bishops alike were consecrated in England, took the customary
" oath of due obedience " to the archbishop of Canterbury, and
were regarded as his extra-territorial suffragans. But by degrees
changes have been made on all these points.

(1) Local conditions soon made a provincial organization
necessary, and it was gradually introduced. The bishop of Cal-
cutta received letters patent as metropolitan of India

Provincial w jj en the sees of Madras and Bombay were founded;
tioo. an d fresh patents were issued to Bishop Broughton in

1847 and Bishop Gray in 1853, as metropolitans of
Australia and South Africa respectively. Similar action was'
taken in 1858, when Bishop Selwyn became metropolitan of
New Zealand; and again in i860, when, on the petition of the
Canadian bishops to the crown and the colonial legislature for
permission to elect a metropolitan, letters patent were issued
appointing Bishop Fulford of Montreal to that office. Since
then metropolitans have been chosen and provinces formed by
regular synodical action, a process greatly encouraged by the
resolutions of the Lambeth conferences on the subject. The
constitution of these provinces is not uniform. In some cases, as
South Africa, New South Wales, and Queensland,the metropolitan
see is fixed. Elsewhere, as in New Zealand, where no single city
can claim pre-eminence, the metropolitan is either elected or else
is the senior bishop by consecration. Two further developments
must be mentioned: (a) The creation of diocesan and provincial
synods, the first diocesan synod to meet being that of New
Zealand in 1844, whilst the formation of a provincial synod was
foreshadowed by a conference of Australasian bishops at Sydney
in 1850; (b) towards the close of the 19th century the title of
archbishop began to be assumed by the metropolitans of several
provinces. It was first assumed by the metropolitans of Canada
and Rupert's Land, at the desire of the Canadian general synod
in 1893; and subsequently, in accordance with a resolution of
the Lambeth conference of 1897, it was given by their synods to
the bishop of Sydney as metropolitan of New South Wales and
to the bishop of Cape Town as metropolitan of South Africa
Civil obstacles have hitherto delayed its adoption by the metro-
politan of India.

(2) By degrees, also, the colonial churches have been freed
from their rather burdensome relations with the state. The

church of the West Indies was disestablished and
Freedom disendowed in 1868. In 1857 it was decided, in
control. Regina v. Eton College, that the crown could not claim

the presentation to a living when it had appointed the
former incumbent to a colonial bishopric, as it does in the case
of an English bishopric. In 1861, after some protest from the
crown lawyers, two missionary bishops were consecrated without
letters patent for regions outside British territory: C. F.
Mackenzie for the Zambezi region and J. C. Patteson for
Melanesia, by the metropolitans of Cape Town and New Zealand
respectively. In 1863 the privy council declared, in Long v.
The Bishop of Cape Town, that " the Church of England, in places
where there is no church established by law, is in the same

situation with any other religious body." In 1865 it adjudged
Bishop Gray's letters patent, as metropolitan of Cape Town, to
be powerless to enable him " to exercise any coercive juris-
diction, or hold any court or tribunal for that purpose," since
the Cape colony already possessed legislative institutions when
they were issued; and his deposition of Bishop Colenso was
declared to be " null and void in law " {re The Bishop of
Natal). With the exception of Colenso the South African
bishops forthwith surrendered their patents, and formally accepted
Bishop Gray as their metropolitan, an example followed in 1865
in the province of New Zealand. In 1862, when the diocese of
Ontario was formed, the bishop was elected in Canada, and con-
secrated under a royal mandate, letters patent being by this time
entirely discredited. And when, in 1867, a coadjutor was chosen
for the bishop of Toronto, an application for a royal mandate
produced the reply from the colonial secretary that " it was not
the part of the crown to interfere in the creation of a new
bishop or bishopric, and not consistent with the dignity of the
crown that he should advise Her Majesty to issue a mandate
which would not be worth the paper on which it was written, and
which, having been sent out to Canada, might be disregarded
in the most complete manner." And at the present day the
colonial churches are entirely free in this matter. This, however,
is not the case with the church in India. Here the bishops of
sees founded down to 1879 receive a stipend from the revenue
(with the exception of the bishop of Ceylon, who no longer does
so). They are not only nominated by the crown and consecrated
under letters patent, but the appointment is expressly subjected
" to such power of revocation and recall as is by law vested "
in the crown; and where additional oversight was necessary
for the church in Tinnevelly, it could only be secured by the
consecration of two assistant bishops, who worked under a com-
mission for the archbishop of Canterbury which was to expire
on the death of the bishop of Madras. Since then, however,
new sees have been founded which are under no such restrictions:
by the creation of dioceses either in native states (Travancore
and Cochin), or out of the existing dioceses (Chota Nagpur, x
Lucknow, &c). In the latter case there is no legal subdivision of
the older diocese, the new bishop administering such districts as
belonged to it under commission from its bishop, provision being
made, however, that in all matters ecclesiastical there shall be
no appeal but to the metropolitan of India.

(3) By degrees, also, the relations of colonial churches to the
archbishop of Canterbury have changed. Until 1855 no colonial
bishop was consecrated outside the British Isles, the
first instance being Dr MacDougall of Labuan, con- J^t oa u omy ,
secrated in India under a commission from the arch-
bishop of Canterbury; and until 1874 it was held to be unlawful
for a bishop to be consecrated in England without taking the
suffragan's oath of due obedience. This necessity was removed
by the Colonial Clergy Act of 1874, which permits the archbishop
at his discretion to dispense with the oath. This, however, has
not been done in all cases; and as late as 1890 it was taken by
the metropolitan of Sydney at his consecration. Thus the
constituent parts of the Anglican communion gradually acquire
autonomy: missionary jurisdictions develop into organized
dioceses, and dioceses are grouped into provinces with canons of
their own. But the most complete autonomy does not involve
isolation. The churches are in full communion with one another,
and act together in many ways; missionary jurisdictions and
dioceses are mapped out by common arrangement, and even
transferred if it seems advisable; e.g. the diocese Honolulu
(Hawaii), previously under the jurisdiction of the archbishop
of Canterbury, was transferred in 1900 to the Episcopal Church
in the United States on account of political changes. Though
the see of Canterbury claims no primacy over the Anglican
communion analogous to that exercised over the Roman Church
by the popes, it is regarded with a strong affection and deference,
which shows itself by frequent consultation and interchange of
greetings. There is also a strong common life emphasized by
common action.

The conference of Anglican bishops from all parts of the world,

ANGLING

instituted by Archbishop Longley in 1867, and known as the
Lambeth Conferences (q.v.), though even for the
a "a an Anglican communion they have not the authority of an
Congress, ecumenical synod, and their decisions are rather of the
nature of counsels than commands, have done much
to promote the harmony and co-operation of the various branches
of the Church. An even more imposing manifestation of this
common life was given by the great pan-Anglican congress held
in London between the 12th and 24th of June 1908, which
preceded the Lambeth conference opened on the 5th of July.
The idea of this originated with Bishop Montgomery, secretary
to the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, and was endorsed
by a resolution of the United Boards of Mission in 1903. As the
result of negotiations and preparations extending over five years,
250 bishops, together with delegates, clerical and lay, from every
diocese in the Anglican communion, met in London, the opening
service of intercession being held in Westminster Abbey. In its
general character, the meeting was but a Church congress on an
enlarged scale, and the subjects discussed, e.g. the attitude of
churchmen towards the question of the marriage laws or that
of socialism, followed much the same lines. The congress, of
course, had no power to decide or to legislate for the Church, its
main value being in drawing its scattered members closer together,
in bringing the newer and more isolated branches into con-
sciousness of their contact with the parent stem, and in opening
the eyes of the Church of England to the point of view and the
peculiar problems of the daughter-churches.

The Anglican communion consists of the following: — (1) The
Church of England, 2 provinces, Canterbury and York, with
24 and 11 dioceses respectively. (2) The Church of Ireland,
2 provinces, Armagh and Dublin, with 7 and 6 dioceses respec-
tively. (3) The Scottish Episcopal Church, with 7 dioceses.
(4) The Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States, with
89 dioceses and missionary jurisdictions, including North Tokyo,
Kyoto, Shanghai, Cape Palmas, and the independent dioceses of
Hayti and Brazil. (5) The Canadian Church, consisting of (a)the
province of Canada, with 10 dioceses; (b) the province of Rupert's
Land, with 8 dioceses. (6) The Church in India and Ceylon, 1
province of 11 dioceses. (7) The Church of the West Indies, 1
province of 8 dioceses, of which Barbados and the Windward
Islands are at present united. (8) The Australian Church,
consisting of (a) the province of New South Wales, with 10
dioceses; (b) the province of Queensland, with 5 dioceses; (c) the
province of Victoria, with 5 dioceses. (9) The Church of New
Zealand, 1 province of 7 dioceses, together with the missionary
jurisdiction of Melanesia. (10) The South African Church, 1
province of 10 dioceses, with the 2 missionary jurisdictions of
Mashonaland and Lebombo. (n) Nearly 30 isolated dioceses
and missionary jurisdictions holding mission from the see of
Canterbury.

Authorities. — Official Year-book of the Church of England;
Phillimore, Ecclesiastical Law, vol. ii. (London, 1895); Digest of
S.P.G. Records (London, 1893); E. Stock, History of the Church
Missionary Society, 3 vols. (London, 1899); H. W. Tucker, The
English Church in Other Lands (London, 1886) ; A. T. Wirgman, The
Church and the Civil Power (London, 1893).

ANGLING, the art or practice of the sport of catching fish by
means of a baited hook or " angle " (from the Indo-European
root ank-, meaning " bend "). 1 It is among the most ancient
of human activities, and may be said to date from the time when
man was in the infancy of the Stone Age, eking out a precarious
existence by the slaughter of any living thing which he could
reach with the rude weapons at his command. It is probable
that attack on fishes was at first much the same as attack on

1 As to whether " angling " necessarily implies a rod as well as a
line and hook, see the discussion in the law case of Barnard v. Roberts
(Times L.R., April 13, 1907), when the question arose as to the use
of night-lines being angling; but the decision against night-lines
went on the ground of the absence of the personal element rather
than on the absence of a rod. The various dictionaries are blind
guides on this point, and the authorities cited are inconclusive;
but, broadly speaking, angling now implies three necessary factors —
a personal angler, the sporting element, and the use of recognized
fishing-tackle.

animals, a matter of force rather than of guile, and conducted by
means of a rude spear with a flint head. It is probable, too, that
the primitive harpooners were not signally successful in their
efforts, and so set their wits to work to devise other means of
getting at the abundant food which waited for them in every
piece of water near their caves. Observation would soon show
them that fish fed greedily on each other and on other inhabitants
of the water or living things that fell into it, and so, no doubt,
arose the idea of entangling the prey by means of its appetite.
Hence came the notion of the first hook, which, it seems certain,
was not a hook at all but a " gorge," a piece of flint or stone
which the fish could swallow with the bait but which it could not
eject afterwards. From remains found in cave-dwellings and
their neighbourhood in different parts of the world it is obvious
that these gorges varied in shape, but in general the idea was the
same, a narrow strip of stone or flake of flint, either straight or
slightly curved at the ends, with a groove in the middle round
which the line could be fastened. Buried in the bait it would be
swallowed end first; then the tightening of the line would fix
it cross- wise in the quarry's, stomach or gullet and so the capture
would be assured. The device still lingers in France and in a
few remote parts of England in the method of catching eels which
is known as " sniggling." In this a needle buried in a worm plays
the part of the prehistoric gorge.

The evolution of the fish-hook from the slightly curved gorge
is easily intelligible. The ends became more and more curved,
until eventually an object not unlike a double hook was attained.
This development would be materially assisted by man's dis-
covery of the uses of bronze and its adaptability to his require-
ments. The single hook, of the pattern more or less familiar to
us, was possibly a concession of the lake-dweller to what may even
then have been a problem — the " education " of fish, and to a
recognition of the fact that sport with the crude old methods
was falling off. But it is also not improbable that in some parts
of the world the single hook developed pari passu with the
double, and that, on the sea-shore for instance, where man was
able to employ so adaptable a substance as shell, the first hook
was a curved fragment of shell lashed with fibre to a piece of
wood or bone, in such a way that the shell formed the bend of
the hook while the wood or bone formed the shank. Both early
remains and recent hooks from the Fiji Islands bear out this
supposition. It is also likely that flint, horn and bone were
pressed into service in a similar manner. The nature of the line
or the rod that may have been used with these early hooks is
largely a matter of conjecture. The first line was perhaps the
tendril of a plant, the first rod possibly a sapling tree. But it is
fairly obvious that the rod must have been suggested by the
necessity of getting the bait out over obstacles which lay between
the fisherman and the water, and that it was a device for increas-
ing both the reach of the arm and the length of the line. It
seems not improbable that the rod very early formed a part of the
fisherman's equipment.

Literary History. — From prehistoric times down to compara-
tively late in the days of chronicles, angling appears to have
remained a practice; its development into an art or sport is a
modern idea. In the earliest literature references to angling are
not very numerous, but there are passages in the Old Testament
which show that fish-taking with hook as well as net was one of
the common industries in the East, and that fish, where it was
obtainable, formed an important article of diet. In Numbers
(xi. 5) the children of Israel mourn for the fish which they " did
eat in Egypt freely." So much too is proved by the monuments
of Egypt; indeed more, for the figures found in some of the
Egyptian fishing pictures using short rods and stout lines are
sometimes attired after the manner of those who were great in
the land. This indicates that angling had already, in a highly
civilized country, taken its place among the methods of diversion
at the disposal of the wealthy, though from the uncompromising
nature of the tackle depicted and the. apparent simplicity of the
fish it would scarcely be safe to assume that in Egypt angling
arrived at the dignity of becoming an " art." In Europe it took
I very much longer for the taking of fish to be regarded even as an

ANGLING

amusement, and the earliest references to it in the Greek and
Latin classics are not very satisfying to the sportsman. There is,
however, a passage in the Odyssey (xii. 247) which is of consider-
able importance, as it shows that fishing with rod and line was
well enough understood in early Greece to be used as a popular
illustration. It occurs in the well-known scene where Scylla
seizes the companions of Odysseus out of the ship and bears them
upwards, just as " some fisher on a headland with a long rod "
brings small fishes gasping to the shore. Another important,
though comparatively late, passage in Greek poetry is the
twenty-first idyll of Theocritus. In this the fisherman Asphalion
relates how in a dream he hooked a large golden fish and describes
graphically, albeit with some obscurity of language, how he
" played " it. Asphalion used a rod and fished from a rock, much
after the manner of the Homeric angler. Among other Greek
writers, Herodotus has a good many references to fish and fishing;
the capture of fish is once or twice mentioned or implied by Plato,
notably in the Laws (vii. 823); Aristotle deals with fish?s in his
Natural History; and there are one or two fishing passages in the
anthology. But in Greek literature, as a whole the subject of
angling is not at all prominent. In writers of late Greek, however,
there is more material. Plutarch, for instance, gives us the
famous story of the fishing match between Antony and Cleopatra,
which has been utilized by Shakespeare. Moreover, it is in Greek
that the first complete treatise on fishing which has come down
to us is written, the Halieutica of Oppian (c. a.d. 169). It is a
hexameter poem in five books with perhaps more technical than
sporting interest, and not so much even of that as the length of
the work would suggest. Still it contains some information about
tackle and methods, and some passages describing battles with
big fish, in the right spirit of enthusiasm. Also in Greek is what is
famous as the first reference in literature to fly-fishing, in the
fifteenth book of Aelian's Natural History (3rd century a.d.). It
is there described how the Macedonians captured a certain
spotted fish in the river Astraeus by means of a lure composed of
coloured wool and feathers, which was presumably used in the
manner now known as " dapping." That there were other
Greek writers who dealt with fish and fishing and composed
" halieutics " we know from Athenaeus. In the first book of his
Deipnosophislae he gives a list of them. But he compares their
work unfavourably with the passage of Homer already cited, in a
way which suggests that their knowledge of angling was not a
great advance upon the knowledge of their remote literary
ancestors. In Latin literature allusions to angling are rather
more numerous than in Greek, but on the whole they are un-
important. Part of a poem by Ovid, the Halieuticon, composed
during the poet's exile at Tomi after a.d. 9, still survives. In
other Roman writers the subject is only treated by way of allusion
or illustration. Martial, however, provides, among other
passages, what may perhaps be entitled to rank as the earliest
notice of private fishery rights — the epigram Ad Piscatorem,
which warns would-be poachers from casting a line in the Baian
lake. Pliny the elder devoted the ninth book of his Natural
History to fishes and water-life, and Plautus, Cicero, Catullus,
Horace, Juvenal, Pliny the younger and Suetonius all allude to
angling here and there. Agricultural writers, too, such as Varro
and Columella, deal with the subject of fish ponds and stews
rather fully. Later than any of these, but still just included in
Latin literature, we have Ausonius (c. a.d. 320) and his well-
known idyll the Mosella, which contains a good deal about the
fish of the Moselle and the methods of catching them. In this
poem is to be found the first recognizable description of members
of the salmon family, and, though the manner of their application
is rather doubtful, the names salmo, salar and Jario strike a
responsive note in the breast of the modern angler.

Post-classical Literature. — As to what happened in the world of
angling in the first few centuries of the Christian era we know
little. It may be inferred, however, that both fish and fishermen
occupied a more honourable position in Christendom than they
ever did before. The prominence of fishermen in the gospel
narratives would in itself have been enough to bring this about,
but it also happened that the Greek word for fish, IX0TS, had an

anagrammatic significance which the devout were not slow to
perceive. The initials of the word resolve into what is practically
a confession of faith, 'Ir;<roDy Xpioros GeoO Tios 2<or)7p (Jesus
Christ, Son of God, Saviour). It is therefore not surprising that
we find the fish very prominent as a sacred emblem in the painting
and sculpture of the primitive church, or that Clement of Alex-
andria should have recommended it, among other things, as a
device for signet rings or seals. The fisherman too is frequently
represented in early Christian art, and it is worthy of remark
that he more often uses a line and hook than a net. The refer-
ences to fish and fishing scattered about in the writings of the
early fathers for the most part reflect the two ideas of the
sacredness of the fish and divine authorization of the fisherman;
the second idea certainly prevailed until the time of Izaak
Walton, for he uses it to justify his pastime. It is also not
unlikely that the practice of fasting (in many cases fish was
allowed when meat was forbidden) gave the art of catching fish
additional importance. It seems at any rate to have been a
consideration of weight when sites were chosen for monasteries
in Europe, and in many cases when no fish-producing river was
at hand the lack was supplied by the construction of fish-ponds.
Despite all this, however, save for an occasional allusion in the
early fathers, there is hardly a connecting link between the
literature of Pagan Rome and the literature that sprang up on
the invention of printing. One volume, the Geoponica, a Greek
compilation concerning whose authorship and date there has
been much dispute, is attributed in Bibliotheca Piscatoria to the
beginning of the 10th century. It contains one book on fish,
fish-ponds and fishing, with prescriptions for baits, &c, extracted
for the most part from other writers. But it seems doubtful
whether its date should not be placed very much earlier. Tradi-
tion makes it a Carthaginian treatise translated into Greek. A
more satisfactory fragment of fishing literature is to be found in
the Colloquy of yElfric, written (ad pueros linguae latinae locu-
tionis exercendos) towards the end of the same century. iElfric
became archbishop of Canterbury in a.d. 995, and the passage
in the Anglo-Saxon text-book takes honourable rank as the
earliest reference to fishing in English writings, though it is not
of any great length. It is to be noted that the fisher who takes a
share in the colloquy states that he prefers fishing in the river to
fishing in the sea. Ascribed to the 13th or 14th century is a
Latin poem De Velula, whose author was apparently Richard de
Fournival. It contains a passage on angling, and was placed to
the credit of Ovid when first printed (c. 1470). A manuscript in
the British museum, Comptes des pickeries dc I'&glise de Troyes
(a.d. 1349-1413), gives a minute account of the fisheries with
the weights of fish captured and the expenses of working.
There is, however, practically nothing else of importance till we
come to the first printed book on angling (a translation of Oppian,
1478, excepted), and so to the beginning of the literature proper.
This first book was a little volume printed in Antwerp probably
in 1492 at the press of Matthias van der Goes. In size it is little
more than a pamphlet, and it treats of birds as well as fish: —
D.it Boecxken leert hoe men mach Voghelen . . . ende . . .
visschen vangen met ten handen. Ende oeck andersins. . . .
(" This book teaches how one may catch birds . . . and . . .
fish with the hands, and also otherwise "). Only one copy
apparently survives, in the Denison library, and a translation
privately printed for Mr Alfred Denison in 1872 was limited to
twenty-five copies. At least two other editions of the book
appeared in Flemish, and it also made its way, in 1502, to
Germany, where, translated and with certain alterations and
additions, it seems to have been re-issued frequently. Next in
date comes the famous Treaty se of Fysshynge wyth an Angle,
printed at Westminster by Wynkyn de Worde in 1496 as a part
of the second edition of The Book of St Albans. The treatise
is for this reason associated with the name of Dame Juliana
Berners, but that somewhat dubious compiler can have had
nothing whatever to do with it.. The treatise is almost certainly
a compilation from some earlier work on angling (" bokes of
credence " are mentioned in its text), possibly from a manuscript
of the earlier part of the 15th century, of which a portion is

ANGLING

preserved in the Denison collection. This was published in
1883 by Mr Thomas Satchell under the title An Older Form of the
Treatyse of Fysshynge wyth an Angle. But it is also possible
that a still older work was the parent of both books, for it has
been held that the manuscript is an independent version. How-
ever this may be, it is certain that the treatise itself has been the
parent of many other works. Many of the instructions contained
in it are handed down from generation to generation with little
change except in diction. Especially is this the case with the list
of trout-flies, a meagre twelve, which survives in many fishing
books until well into the 18th century.

From the beginning of the 16th century the fisherman's library
begins to grow apace, as, though books solely devoted to fishing
are not yet frequent, works on husbandry and country pursuits
almost all contain something on the subject. In Italy the
fisherman and his occupation apparently were considered poetic-
ally; the word pescatore or its cognates are common on Italian
16th and 17th century title-pages, though in many instances
the fulfilment of the implied promise is not adequate, from an
angler's point of view. From the pages of Bibliotheca Piscatoria
a fairly long list of Italian writers could be gleaned. Among
them may be mentioned Sannazaro {Piscatoria, &c, Rome, 1526)
and Andrea Calmo (Rime pescalorie. Venice, 1557). A century
later was Parthenius, who published a volume of Halieutica at
Naples. This writer has an amusing reference to the art of
" tickling " trout as practised in Britain. In Germany, as has
been shown, the original little Flemish treatise had a wide vogue
in the 16th century, and fishing played a part in a good many
books on husbandry such as that of Conrad Heresbach (1570).
Fish and fish-ponds formed the main topic of a Latin work by
Dubravius (1552), while Gesner in the middle of the 16th and
Aldrovandi at the beginning of the 17th centuries wrote at length
on the natural history of fishes. In France the subject is less
well represented, but Lcs Pcscheries of Chris, de Gamon (Lyons,
1599) and Le Plaisir des champs of CI. Gauchet (Paris, 1604)
deserve to be noted. Les Ruses innocentes by Francois Fortin,
first published at Paris in 1600, and several times in later editions,
is characterized by Messrs Westwood and Satchell as " on the
whole the most interesting contribution made by France to
the literature of angling." England during the most part of the
16th century was evidently well enough served by the original
treatise out of The Book of St Albans. It was republished twice
by Wynkyn de Worde, six or seven times by Copland, and some
five times by other printers. It was also practically republished
in A Booke of Fishing by L. M. (1590). L. M. (Leonard Mascall)
ranks as an angling author, but he did little more than borrow and
edit the treatise. The same may be said of another version of The
Book of St Albans " now newly collected by W. G. Faulkener "
and issued in 1596.

Modern Literature. — In 1 600 appeared John Taverner's Certaine
Experiments concerning Fish and Fruite, and after this the period
of angling literature proper begins. TheSecrets of Angling (1613),
by J(ohn) D(ennys), Esq., is one of the most important
volumes in the angler's library, both on account of the excellence
of the verse in which it is written and also on account of its
practical value. Gervase Markham, " the first journalist," as
he has been called, published his first book of husbandry at
the same date, and, as in most of his many books on the same
subject, devoted a certain amount of space to fishing. But
Markham gathered his materials in a rather shameless manner
and his angling passages have little originality. Thomas Barker's
The Art of Angling (1st ed., 1651) takes a more honourable
position, and received warm commendation from Izaak Walton
himself, who followed it in 1653 with The Compleat Angler.
So much has been written about this treasured classic that it is
only necessary to indicate its popularity here by saying that
its editions occupy some twenty pages in Bibliotheca Piscatoria
(1883), and that since that work was published at least forty
new editions have to be added to the list. During Walton's
life-time the book ran through five editions, and with the fifth
(1676) was incorporated Charles Cotton's second part, the
" instructions how to angle for a trout or grayling, in a clear

stream." In some cases too there was added a third book,
the fourth edition of The Experienced Angler, by Robert Venables
(1st ed., 1662). The three books together bore the title of
The Universal Angler. Venables's portion was dropped later,
but it is worth reading, and contained sound instruction though
it has not the literary merit of Walton and Cotton.

A few other notable books of the century call for enumeration,
The Gentleman 's Recreation by Nicholas Cox (1674), Gilbert's
The Angler's Delight (1676), Chetham's Vade-Mecum (1681),
The Complete Trotter by Robert Nobbes (1682), R. Franck's
Northern Memoirs (1694), and The True Art of Angling by J. S.
(1696). Of these Chetham, Nobbes, Franck and J. S. have the
merit of considerable originality. Franck has gained some
notoriety by his round abuse of Walton. In the 18th century
among others we find The Secrets of Angling by C. G. (1705),
Robert Howlett's The Angler's Sure Guide (1706), The Whole
Art of Fishing (1714), The Compleat Fishermanby James Saunders
(1724), The Art of Angling by R. Brookes (1740), another book
with the same title by R. and C. Bowlker (Worcester, c. 1750),
The Complete Sportsman by Thomas Fairfax (c. 1760), The
Angler's Museum by T. Shirley (1784), and A Concise Treatise
on the Art of Angling by Thomas Best (1787). Of these only
Saunders's, Bowlker's and Best's books are of much importance,
the rest being for the most part " borrowed." One volume of
verse in the 18th century calls for notice, Moses Browne's
Piscatory Eclogues (1729). Among greater names we get angling
passages in Pope, Gay and Thomson; the two last were evidently
brothers of the angle.

With the 19th century angling literature becomes too big a
subject to be treated in detail, and it is only possible to glance
at a few of the more important books and writers. Daniel's
Rural Sports appeared in 1801; it is a treasure-house of odd
facts. In 1828 Sir Humphry Davy published his famous
Salmonia, which was reviewed in the Quarterly by Sir Walter-
Scott. At about this time too were appearing the Nodes Ambro-
sianae in Blackwood's Magazine. Christopher North (Professor
Wilson) often touched upon angling in them, besides contributing
a good many angling articles to the magazine. In 1835 that
excellent angling writer Thomas Tod Stoddart began his valuable
series of books with The Art of Angling as Practised in Scotland.
In 1839 he published Songs and Poems, among which are pieces
of great merit. During this period, too, first appeared, year
by year, the Newcastle Fishers' Garlands, collected by Joseph
Crawhall afterwards and republished in 1864. These border.
verses, like Stoddart's, have often a genuine ring about them
which is missing from the more polished effusions of Gay and
Thomson. Alfred Ronalds's The Fly-Fisher's Entomology
(1st ed., 1836) was a publication of great importance, for it
marked the beginning of the scientific spirit among trout-fishers.
It ran through many editions and is still a valuable book of
reference. A step in angling history is also marked by George
Pulman's Vade-Mecum of Fly-fishing for Trout (1841), for it
contains the first definite instructions on fishing with a " dry
fly." Another is marked by Hewett Wheatley's The Rod and
the Line (1849), where is to be found the earliest reference to the
" eyed " hook. Yet another is marked by W. C. Stewart's
The Practical Angler (1857), in which is taught the new doctrine
of " up-stream " fishing for trout. This is a book of permanent
value. Among the many books of this period Charles Kingsley's
Miscellanies (1859) stands out, for it contains the immortal
" Chalk-Stream Studies." The work of Francis Francis begins
at about the same time, though his A Book on Angling, which
is still one of the most valuable text-books, was not first published
till 1867. Another well-known and excellent writer, Mr H.
Cholmondeley Pennell, began in the early 'sixties; it is to him
that we owe the admirable volumes on fresh-water fishing in
the " Badminton Library." Among other English writers
mention must be made of Messrs William Senior, John Bicker-
dyke and F. M. Halford, who have all performed signal services
for angling and its literature. (See further bibliography ad fin.)
In America the latter half of the 19th century produced a good
deal of fishing literature, much of it of a high standard. / go

24-

ANGLING

a-Fishing by Dr W. C. Prime (1873), Fishing with the Fly by
C. F. Orvis, A. Nelson Cheney and others (1883), The American
Salmon Fisherman and Fly Rods and Fly Tackle by H. P. Wells
(1886 and 1885), Little Rivers and other books by the Rev. H.
Van Dyke — these are only a few specially distinguished in style
and matter. Germany and France have not contributed so
largely to the modern library, but in the first country we find
several useful works by Max von dem Borne, beginning with
the Handbuch der Angelfischerei of 1875, and there are a good
many other writers who have contributed to the subject, while
in France there are a few volumes on fishing by different hands.
The most noticeable is M. G. Albert Petit's La Truite de riviere
(1897), an admirable book on fly-fishing. Asyet, however, though
there are many enthusiastic anglers in France, the sport has not
established itself so firmly as to have inspired much literature
of its own ; the same may be said of Germany.

Modern Conditions. — In the modern history of angling there
are one or two features that should be touched upon. The great
increase in the number of fishermen has had several results.
One is a corresponding increase in the difficulty of obtaining
fishing, and a notable rise in the value of rivers, especially those
which are famed for salmon and trout. Salmon-fishing now may
be said to have become a pastime of the rich, and there are signs
that trout-fishing will before long have to be placed in the same
exclusive category, while even the right to angle for less-esteemed
fish will eventually be a thing of price. The development is
natural, and it has naturally led to efforts on the part of the
angling majority to counteract, if possible, the growing difficulty.
These efforts have been directed chiefly in two ways, one the
establishment of fishing clubs, the other the adoption of angling
in salt water. The fishing club of the big towns was originally
a social institution, and its members met together to sup, con- 1
verse on angling topics and perhaps to display notable fish that
.they had caught. Later, however, arose the idea that it would be
a convenience if a club could give its members privileges of fishing
as well as privileges of reunion. So it comes about that all over
the United Kingdom, in British colonies and dependencies, in
the United States, and also in Germany and France, fishing clubs
rent waters, undertake preservation and restocking and generally
lead an active and useful existence. It is a good sign for the
future of angling and anglers that they are rapidly increasing in
number. One of the oldest fishing clubs, if not the oldest, was
the Schuylkill club, founded in Pennsylvania in 1732. An
account of its history was published in Philadelphia in 1830.
Among the earliest clubs in London are to be numbered such
societies as The True Waltonians, The Piscatorial, The Friendly
Anglers and The Gresham, which are still flourishing. A certain
amount of literary activity has been observable in the world of
angling clubs, and several volumes of " papers " are on the
records. Most noticeable perhaps are the three volumes of
Anglers' Evenings published in 1880-1894, a collection of essays
by members of the Manchester Anglers' Association. The other
method of securing a continuance of sport, the adoption of sea-
angling as a substitute for fresh-water fishing, is quite a modern
thing. Within the memory of men still young the old tactics of
hand-line and force were considered good enough for sea fish.
Now the fresh-water angler has lent his centuries of experience
in deluding his quarry; the sea-angler has adopted many of the
ideas presented to him, has modified or improved others, and has
developed the capture of sea-fish into a science almost as subtle
as the capture of their fresh-water cousins. One more modern
feature, which is also a result of the increase of anglers, is the great
advance made in fish-culture, fish-stocking and fish-acclimatiza-
tion during the last half-century. Fish-culture is now a
recognized industry; every trout-stream of note and value is
restocked from time to time as a matter of course; salmon-
hatcheries are numerous, though their practical utility is still a
debated matter, in Great Britain at any rate; coarse fish are
also bred for purposes of restocking; and, lastly, it is now
considered a fairly simple matter to introduce fish from one
country to another, and even from continent to continent. In
England the movement owes a great deal to Francis Francis,

who, though he was not the earliest worker in the field, was
among the first to formulate the science of fish-breeding; his
book Fish-Culture, first published in 1863, still remains one of
the best treatises on the subject. In the United States, where
fishery science has had the benefit of generous governmental and
official support and countenance and so has reached a high level
of achievement, Dr. T. Garlick (The Artificial Reproduction oj
Fishes, Cleveland, 1857) is honoured as a pioneer. On the
continent of Europe the latter half of the 19th century saw a very
considerable and rapid development in fish-culture, but until
comparatively recently the propagation and care of fish in most
European waters have been considered almost entirely from the
point of view of the fish-stew and the market. As to what has
been done in the way of acclimatization it is not necessary to say
much. Trout {Salmo fario) were introduced to New Zealand in
the late 'sixties from England; in the 'eighties rainbow trout
(Salmo irideus) were also introduced from California ; now New
Zealand provides the finest trout-fishing of its kind in the world.
American trout of different kinds have been introduced into
England, and brown trout have been introduced to America;
but neither innovation can be said to have been an unqualified
success, though the rainbow has established itself firmly in some
waters of the United Kingdom. It is still regarded with some
suspicion, as it has a tendency to wander from waters which do
not altogether suit it. For the rest, trout have been established
in Ceylon, in Kashmir and in South Africa, and early in 1906 an
attempt was made to carry them to British Central Africa. In
fact the possibilities of acclimatization are so great that, it seems
probable, in time no river of the civilized world capable of holding
trout will be without them.

Methods and Practice

Angling now divides itself into two main divisions, fishing in
fresh water and fishing in the sea. The two branches of the
sport have much in common, and sea-angling is really little more
than an adaptation of fresh-water methods to salt-water con-
ditions. Therefore it will not be necessary to deal with it at
great length and it naturally comes in the second place. Angling
in fresh water is again divisible into three principal parts, fishing
on the surface, i.e. with the fly; in mid- water, i.e. with a bait
simulating the movements of a small fish or with the small fish
itself; and on the bottom with worms, paste or one of the many
other baits which experience has shown that fish will take. With
the premise that it is not intended here to go into the minutiae
of instruction which may more profitably be discovered in the
many works of reference cited at the end of this article, some
account of the subdivisions into which these three styles of fishing
fall may be given.

Fresh-Water Fishing.

Fly-fishing. — Fly-fishing is the most modern of them, but it
is the most highly esteemed, principally because it is the method
par excellence of taking members of the most valuable sporting
family of fish, the Salmonidae. It may roughly be considered
under three heads, the use of the " wet " or sunk fly, of the " dry "
or floating fly, and of the natural insect. Of these the first
is the most important, for it covers the widest field and is
the most universally practised. There are few varieties of fish
which may not either consistently or occasionally be taken with
the sunk fly in one of its two forms. The large and gaudy bunch
of feathers, silk and tinsel with which salmon, very large trout,
black bass and occasionally other predaceous fish are taken is not,
strictly speaking, a fly at all. Jt rather represents, if anything,
some small fish or subaqueous creature on which the big fish is
accustomed to feed and it may conveniently receive the generic
name of salmon-fly. The smaller lures, however, which are used
to catch smaller trout and other fish that habitually feed on
insect food are in most cases intended to represent that food in
one of its forms and are entitled to the name of "artificial flies."
The dry or floating fly is simply a development of the imitation
theory, and has been evolved from the wet fly in course of closer
observation of the habits of flies and fish in certain waters. Both
wet and dry fly methods are really a substitute for the third and

ANGLING

oldest kind of surface-fishing, the use of a natural insect as a bait.
Each method is referred to incidentally below.

Spinning, b'c. — Mid-water fishing, as has been said, broadly
consists in the use of a small fish, or something that simulates it,
and its devices are aimed almost entirely at those fish which prey
on their fellows. Spinning, live-baiting and trolling 1 are these
devices. In the first a small dead fish or an imitation of it made
in metal, india-rubber, or other substance, is caused to revolve
rapidly as it is pulled through the water, so that it gives the idea
of something in difficulties and trying to escape. In the second
a small fish is put on the angler's hook alive and conveys the
same idea by its own efforts. In the third a small dead fish is
caused to dart up and down in the water without revolving; it
conveys the same idea as the spinning fish, though the manipula-
tion is different.

Bottom-Fishing. — Bottom-fishing is the branch of angling
which is the most general. There is practically no fresh-water
fish that will not take some one or more of the baits on the angler's
list if they are properly presented to it when it is hungry. Usually
the baited hook is on or near the bottom of the water, but the rule
suggested by the name " bottom-fishing " is not invariable and
often the bait is best used in mid-water; similarly, in " mid-water
fishing " the bait must sometimes be used as close to the bottom
as possible. Bottom-fishing is roughly divisible into two kinds,
float-fishing, in which a bite is detected by the aid of a float
fastened to the line above the hook and so balanced that its tip
is visible above the water, and hand-fishing, in which no float is
used and the angler trusts to his hand to feel the bite of a fish. In
most cases either method can be adopted and it is a matter of
taste, but broadly speaking the float-tackle is more suited to water
which is not very deep and is either still or not rapid. In great
depths or strong streams a float is difficult to manage.

The Fish.

It is practically impossible to classify the fish an angler
catches according to the methods which he employs, as most
fish can be taken by at least two of these methods, while many
of those most highly esteemed can be caught by all three.
Sporting fresh-water fish are therefore treated according to their
families and merits from the angler's point of view, and it is briefly
indicated which method or methods best succeed in pursuit of
them.

Salmon. — First in importance come the migratory Salmonidae,
and at the head of them the salmon {Salmo salar), which has a
two-fold reputation as a sporting and as a commercial asset. The
salmon fisheries of a country are a very valuable possession, but
it is only comparatively recently that this has been realized and
that salmon rivers have received the legal protection which is
necessary to their well-being. Even now it cannot be asserted
that in England the salmon question, as it is called, is settled.
Partly owing to our ignorance of the life-history of the fish, partly
owing to the difficulty of reconciling the opposed interests of
commerce and sport, the problem as to how a river should be
treated remains only partially solved, though it cannot be denied
that there has been a great advance in the right direction. The
life-history of the salmon, so far as it concerns the matter in hand,
may be very briefly summed up. It is bred in the rivers and fed
in the sea. The parent fish ascend in late autumn as high a"s they
can get, the ova are deposited on gravel shallows, hatching out in
the course of a few weeks into parr. The infant salmon remains
in fresh water at least one year, generally two years, without
growingmore than a few inches, and then about May assumes what
is called the smolt-dress, that is to say, it loses the dark parr-bands
and red spots of infancy and becomes silvery all over. After this
it descends without delay to the sea, where it feeds to such good
purpose that in a year it has reached a weight of 2 lb to 4 lb or
more, and it may then reascend as a grilse. Small grilse indeed
may only have been in the sea a few months, ascending in the
autumn of the year of their first descent. If the fish survives the

1 Trolling is very commonly confused in angling writing and talk
with trailing, which simply means drawing a spinning-bait along
behind a boat in motion.

perils of its first ascent and spawning season and as a kelt or
spawned fish gets down to the sea again, it comes up a second time
as a salmon of weight varying from 8 lb upwards. Whether
salmon come up rivers, and, if so, spawn, every year, why some
fish are much heavier than others of the same age, what their mode
of life is in the sea, why some run up in spring and summer when
the breeding season is not till about November or December,
whether they were originally sea-fish or river-fish — these and
other similar questions await a conclusive answer. One principal
fact, however, stands out amid the uncertainty , and that is that
without a free passage up and down unpolluted rivers and without
protection on the spawning beds salmon have a very poor chance
of perpetuating their species. Economic prudence dictates
therefore that every year a considerable proportion of running
salmon should be allowed to escape the dangers that confront
them in the shape of nets, obstructions, pollutions, rods and
poachers. And it is in the adjustment of the interests which are
bound up in these dangers (the last excepted; officially poachers
have no interests, though in practice their plea of " custom and
right " has too often to be taken into consideration) that the
salmon question consists. To secure a fair proportion of fish for
the market, a fair proportion for the rods and a fair proportion
for the redds, without unduly damaging manufacturing interests,
this is the object of those who have the question at heart, and
with many organizations and scientific observers at work it should
not be long before the object is attained. Already the system of
" marking " kelts with a small silver label has resulted in a con-
siderable array of valuable statistics which have made it possible
to estimate the salmon's ordinary rate of growth from year to
year. It is very largely due to the efforts of anglers that the
matter has gone so far. Whether salmon feed in fresh water is
another question of peculiar interest to anglers, for it would seem
that if they do not then the whole practice of taking them must
be an anomaly. Champions have arisen on both sides of the argu-
ment, some, scientists, asserting that salmon (parr and kelts
excluded, for both feed greedily as opportunity occurs) do not
feed, others, mostly anglers, maintaining strongly that they do,
and bringing as evidence their undoubted and customary capture
by rod and line, not only with the fly, but also with such obvious
food-stuffs as dead baits, worms and prawns. On the other side
it is argued that food is never found inside a salmon after it has
been long enough in a river to have digested its last meal taken in
salt water. The very few instances of food found in salmon which
have been brought forward to support the contrary opinion are
in the scientific view to be regarded with great caution; certainly
in one case of recent years, which at first appeared to be well
authenticated, it was afterwards found that a small trout had been
pushed down a salmon's throat after capture by way of a joke.
A consideration of the question, however, which may perhaps
make some appeal to both sides, is put forward by Dr J. Kingston
Barton in the first of the two volumes on Fishing {Country Life
Series). He maintains that salmon do not habitually feed in
fresh water, but he does not reject the possibility of their occasion-
ally taking food. His view is that after exertion, such as that
entailed by running from pool to pool during a spate, the fish may
feel a very transient hunger and be impelled thereby to snap at
anything in its vicinity which looks edible. The fact that the
angler's best opportunity is undoubtedly when salmon have newly
arrived into a pool, supports this contention. The longer they
are compelled to remain in the same spot by lack of water the
worse becomes the prospect of catching them, and " unfishable "
is one of the expressive words which fishermen use to indicate the
condition of a river during the long periods of drought which too
often distinguish the sport.

Salmon Tackle and Methods. — It is when the drought breaks up
and the long-awaited rain has come that the angler has his chance
and makes ready his tackle, against the period of a few days (on
some short streams only a few hours) during which the water
will be right; right is a very exact term on some rivers, meaning
not only that the colour of the water is suitable to the fly, but
that its height shall be within an inch or two of a given mark,
prescribed by experience. As to the tackle which is made ready,

ANGLING

there is, as in most angling matters, divergence of opinion.
Salmon fly-rods are now made principally of two materials,
greenheart and split-cane; the former is less expensive, the
latter is more durable; it is entirely a matter of taste which a
man uses, but the split-cane rod is now rather more in favour,
and for salmon-fishing it is in England usually built with a
core of steel running from butt to tip and known as a " steel
centre." How long the rod shall be is also a matter on which
anglers differ, but from 16 ft. to 17 ft. 6 in. represents the limits
within which most rods are preferred. The tendency is to
reduce rather than to increase the length of the rod, which may
be accounted for by the adoption of a heavy line. Early in the
19th century anglers used light-topped rods of 20 ft. and even
more, and with them a light line composed partly of horse-hair;
they thought 60 ft. with such material a good cast. Modern
experience, however, has shown that a shorter rod with a heavier
top will throw a heavy dressed silk line much farther with less
exertion. Ninety feet is now considered a good fishing cast,
while many men can throw a great deal more. In the United
States, where rods have long been used much lighter than in
England, the limits suggested would be considered too high.
From 1 2 ft. 6 in. to 1 5 ft. 6 in. is about the range of the American
angler's choice, though long rods are not unknown with him.
The infinite variety of reels, lines, gut collars 1 and other forms of
tackle which is now presented to the angler's consideration and
for his bewilderment is too wide a subject to be touched upon
here. Something, however, falls to be said about flies. One of
the perennially fruitful topics of inquiry is what the fish takes a
salmon-fly to be. Beyond a fairly general admission that it is
regarded as something endowed with life, perhaps resembling
a remembered article of marine diet, perhaps inviting gastro-
nomic experiment, perhaps irritating merely and rousing an
impulse to destroy, the discussion has not reached any definite
conclusion. But more or less connected with it is the controversy
as to variety of colour and pattern. Some authorities hold that
a great variety of patterns with very minute differences in colour
and shades of colour is essential to complete success; others
contend that salmon do not differentiate between nice shades of
colour, that they only draw distinctions between flies broadly
as being light, medium or dark in general appearance, and that
the size of a fly rather than its colour is the important point for
the angler's consideration. Others again go some way with the
supporters of the colour-scheme and admit the efficacy of flies
whose general character is red, or yellow, or black, and so on.
The opinion of the majority, however, is probably based on past
experience, and a man's favourite flies for different rivers and
condition of water are those with which he or someone else has
previously succeeded. It remains a fact that in most fly-books
great variety of patterns will be discoverable, while certain old
standard favourites such as the Jock Scott, Durham Ranger,
Silver Doctor, and Thunder and Lightning will be prominent.
Coming out of the region of controversy it is a safe generalization
to say that the general rule is: big flies for spring fishing when
rivers are probably high, small flies for summer and low water,
and flies medium or small in autumn according to the conditions.
Spring fishing is considered the cream of the sport. Though
salmon are not as a rule so numerous or so heavy as during the

1 The precise date when silkworm gut (now so important a feature
of the angler's equipment) was introduced is obscure. Pepys, in his
Diary (1667), mentions " a gut string varnished over " which " is
beyond any hair for strength and smallness " as a new angling secret
which he likes " mightily." In the third edition (1700) of Chetham's
Vade-Mecum, already cited, appears an advertisement of the " East
India weed, which is the only thing for trout, carp and bottom-
fishing." Again, in the third edition of Nobbes's Art of Trolling
(1805), in the supplementary matter, appears a letter signed by
J. Eaton and G. Gimber, tackle-makers of Crooked Lane (July
20, 1801), in which it is stated that gut " is produced from the
silkworm and not an Indian weed, as has hitherto been conjec-
tured. . . ." The word " gut " is employed before this date, but it
seems obvious that silkworm gut was for a long time used under the
impression that it was a weed, and that its introduction was a thing
of the 17th century. It is probable, however, that vegetable fibre
was used too; we believe that in some parts of India it is used by
natives to this day. Pepys' " minikin " was probably cat-gut.

autumn run, and though kelts are often a nuisance in the early
months, yet the clean-run fish of February, March or April
amply repays patience and disappointment by its fighting powers
and its beauty. Summer fishing on most rivers in the British
Islands is uncertain, but in Norway summer is the season,
which possibly explains to some extent the popularity of that
country with British anglers, for the pleasure of a sport is largely
increased by good weather.

Two methods of using the fly are in vogue, casting and harling.
The first is by far the more artistic, and it may be practised
either from a boat, from the bank or from the bed of the river
itself; in the last case the angler wades, wearing waterproof
trousers or wading-stockings and stout nail-studded brogues.
In either case the fishing is similar. The fly is cast across and
down stream, and has to be brought over the " lie " of the fish,
swimming naturally with its head to the stream, its feathers
working with tempting movement and its whole appearance
suggesting some live thing dropping gradually down and across
stream. Most anglers add to the motion of the fly by "working "
it with short pulls from the rod-top. When a fish takes, the rise
is sometimes seen, sometimes not; in any case the angler should
not respond with the rod until he feels the pull. Then he should
tighten, not strike. The fatal word " strike," with its too literal
interpretation, has caused many a breakage. Having hooked
his fish, the angler must be guided by circumstances as to what
he does; the salmon will usually decide that for him. But it is
a sound rule to give a well-hooked fish no unnecessary advantage
and to hold on as hard as the tackle will allow. Good tackle will
stand an immense strain, and with this " a minute a pound " is a
fair estimate of the time in which a fish should be landed. A
foul-hooked salmon (no uncommon thing, for a fish not infre-
quently misses the fly and gets hooked somewhere in the body)
takes much longer to land. The other method of using the fly,
harling, which is practised on a few big rivers, consists in trailing
the fly behind a boat rowed backward and forwards across the
stream and dropping gradually downwards. Fly-fishing for
salmon is also practised on some lakes, into which the fish run.
On lakes the boat drifts slowly along a " beat," while the angler
casts diagonally over the spots where salmon are wont to lie.
Salmon may also be caught by " mid-water fishing," with a
natural bait either spun or trolled and with artificial spinning-
baits of different kinds, and by " bottom-fishing " with prawns,
shrimps and worms. Spinning is usually practised when the
water is too high or too coloured for the fly; trolling is seldom
employed, but is useful for exploring pools which cannot be
fished by spinning or with the fly; the prawn is a valuable lure
in low water and when fish are unwilling to rise ; while the worm
is killing at all states of the river, but except as a last resource
is not much in favour. There are a few waters where salmon
have the reputation of not taking a fly at all; in them spinning
or prawning are the usual modes of fishing. But most anglers,
wherever possible, prefer to use the fly. The rod for the alter-
native methods is generally shorter and stiffer than the fly-rod,
though made of like material. Twelve to fourteen feet represents
about the range of choice. Outside the British Islands the
salmon-fisher finds the headquarters of his sport in Europe in
Scandinavia and Iceland, and in the New World in some of the
waters of Canada and Newfoundland.

Land-locked Salmon. — The land-locked salmon (Salmo salar
sebago) of Canada and the lakes of Maine is, as its name implies,
now regarded by scientists as merely a land-locked form of the
salmon. It does not often attain a greater size than 20 lb,
but it is a fine fighter and is highly esteemed by American
anglers. In most waters it does not take a fly so well as a spinning-
bait, live-bait or worm. The methods of angling for it do not
differ materially from those employed for other Salmonidae.

Pacific. Salmon. — Closely allied to Salmo salar both in appear-
ance and habits is the genus Oncorhynchus, commonly known
as Pacific salmon. It contains six species, is peculiar to the North
Pacific Ocean, and is of some importance to the angler, though
of not nearly so much as the Atlantic salmon. The quinnat is
the largest member of the genus, closely resembles salar in

ANGLING

appearance and surpasses him in size. The others, sockeye,
humpback, cohoe, dog-salmon and masu, are smaller and of less
interest to the angler, though some of them have great commercial
value. The last-named is only found in the waters of Japan, but
the rest occur in greater or less quantities in the rivers of Kam-
chatka, Alaska, British Columbia and Oregon. The problems
presented to science by solar are offered by Oncorhynchus also,
but there are variations in his life-history, such as the fact that
few if any fish of the genus are supposed to survive their first
spawning season. When once in the rivers none of these salmon
is of very much use to the angler; as, though it is stated that
they will occasionally take a fly or spoon in fresh water, they are
not nearly so responsive as their Atlantic cousin and in many
streams are undoubtedly not worth trying for. At the mouths of
some rivers, however, where the water is distinctly tidal, and
in certain bays of the sea itself they give very fine sport, the
method of fishing for them being usually to trail a heavy spoon-
bait behind a boat. By this means remarkable bags of fish have
been made by anglers. The sport is of quite recent development.
Sea-Trout. — Next to the salmon comes the sea-trout, the other
migratory salmonid of Europe. This is a fish with many local
names and a good deal of local variation. Modern science, how-
ever, recognises two " races " only, Salmo trutta, the sea-trout
proper, and Salmo cambricus or eriox, the bull-trout, or sewin
of Wales, which is most prominent in such rivers as the Coquet
and Tweed. The life-history of sea-trout is much the same as
that of salmon, and the fish on their first return from the sea in
the grilse-stage are called by many names, finnock, herling and
whitling being perhaps the best known. Of the two races
Salmo trutta alone is of much use to the fly-fisher. The bull-trout,
for some obscure reason, is not at all responsive to his efforts,
except in its kelt stage. Then it will take greedily enough, but
that is small consolation. The bull-trout is a strong fish and
grows to a great size and it is a pity that it is not of greater
sporting value, if only to make up for its bad reputation as an
article of food. Some amends, however, are made by its cousin
the sea-trout, which is one of the gamest and daintiest fish on
the angler's list. It is found in most salmon rivers and also
in not a few streams which are too small to harbour the bigger
fish, while there are many lakes in Scotland and Ireland (where
the fish is usually known as white trout) where the fishing is
superb when the trout have run up into them. Fly-fishing for
sea-trout is not a thing apart. A three-pounder that will impale
itself on a big salmon-fly, might equally well have taken a tiny
trout-fly. Many anglers, when fishing a sea-trout river where
they run large, 5 lb or more, and where there is also a chance of a
salmon, effect a compromise by using a light 13 ft. or 14 ft.
double-handed rod, and tackle not so slender as to make hooking
a salmon a certain disaster. But undoubtedly to get the full
pleasure out of sea-trout-fishing a single-handed rod of 10 ft. to
12 ft. with reasonably fine gut and small flies should be used, and
the way of using it is much the same as in wet-fly fishing for
brown trout, which will be treated later. When the double-
handed rod and small salmon-flies are used, the fishing is practically
the same as salmon-fishing except that it is on a somewhat
smaller scale. Flies for sea-trout are numberless and local
patterns abound, as may be expected with a fish which has so
catholic a taste. But, as with salmon-fishers so with sea-trout-
fishers, experience forms belief and success governs selection.
Among the small salmon-flies and loch-flies which will fill his
book, the angler will do well to have a store of very small trout-
flies at hand, while experience has shown that even the dry fly
will kill sea-trout on occasion, a thing that is worth remembering
where rivers are low and fish shy. July, August and September
are in general the best months for sea-trout, and as they are dry
months the angler often has to put up with indifferent sport. The
fish will, however, rise in tidal water and in a few localities even
in the sea itself, or in salt-water lochs into which streams run.
Sea-trout have an irritating knack of " coming short," that is to
say, they will pluck at the fly without really taking it. There are
occasions, on the other hand, in loch-fishing where plenty of
time must be given to the fish without tightening on it, especially

if it happens to be a big one. Like salmon, sea-trout are to be
caught with spinning-baits and also with the worm. The main
controversy that is concerned with sea-trout is whether or no
the fish captured in early spring are clean fish or well-mended
kelts. On the whole, as sea-trout seldom run before May, the
majority of opinion inclines to their being kelts.

Non-migratory Salmonidae. — Of the non-migratory members
of the Salmonidae the most impotant in Great Britain is the
brown trout (Salmo fario). Its American cousin the rainbow
trout (S. irideus) is now fairly well established in the country
too, while other transatlantic species both of trout and char
(which are some of them partially migratory, that is to say,
migratory when occasion offers), such as the steelhead (S. rivu-
laris), fontinalis (S. fonlinalis) and the cut-throat trout (S.
clarkil), are at least not unknown.- All these fish,. together with
their allied forms in America, can be captured wdth the fly, and,
speaking broadly, the wet-fly method will do well for them all.
Therefore it is only necessary to deal with the methods applicable
to one species, the brown trout.

Trout. — Of the game-fishes the brown trout is the most popular,
for it is spread over the whole of Great Britain and most of
Europe, wherever there are waters suited to it. It is a fine
sporting fish and is excellent for the table, while in some streams
and lakes it grows to a very considerable size, examples of 16 lb
from southern rivers and 20 lb from Irish and Scottish lakes
being not unknown. One of the signs of its popularity is that its
habits and history have produced some very animated con-
troversies. Some of the earliest discussions were provoked
by the liability of the fish to change its appearance in different
surroundings and conditions, and so at one time many a district
claimed its local trout as a separate species. Now, however,
science admits but one species, though, to such well-defined
varieties as the i^och Leven trout, the estuarine trout and the
gillaroo, it concedes the right to separate names and " races."
In effect all, from the great Jerox of the big lakes of Scotland
and Ireland to the little fingerling of the Devonshire brook, are
one and the same — Salmo fario.

Wet-Fly Fishing for Trout. — Fly-fishing for trout is divided into
three kinds: fishing with the artificial fly sunk or " wet," fishing
with it floating or " dry " and fishing with the natural insect.
Of the two first methods the wet fly is the older and may be taken
first. Time was when all good anglers cast their flies down-
stream and thought no harm. But in 1857 W. C. Stewart pub-
lished his Practical Angler, in which he taught that it paid better
to fish up-stream, for by so doing the angler was not only less
likely to be seen by the trout but was more likely to hook his fish.
The doctrine was much discussed and criticized, but it gradually
won adherents, until now up-stream fishing is the orthodox
method where it is possible. Stewart was also one of the first to
advocate a lighter rod in place of the heavy 12 ft. and 13 ft.
weapons that were used in the North in his time. There are
still many men who use the long rod for wet-fly fishing in streams,
but there are now more who find 10 ft. quite enough for their
purpose. For lake-fishing from a boat, however, the longer rod
is still in many cases preferred. In fishing rivers the main art
is to place the right flies in the right places and to let them come
naturally down with the stream. The right flies may be ascer-
tained to some extent from books and from local wisdom, but
the right places can only be learnt by experience. It does not,
however, take long to acquire "an eye for water" and that is
half the battle, for the haunts of trout in rapid rivers are very
much alike. In lake-fishing chance has a greater share in bring-
ing about success, but here too the right fly and the right place
are important; the actual management of rod, line and flies, of
course, is easier, for there is no stream to be reckoned with.
Though there is little left to be said about wet-fly fishing where
the fly is an imitation more or less exact of a natural insect,
there is another branch of the art which has been stimulated by
modern developments. This is the use of salmon-flies for big
trout much in the same way as for salmon. In such rivers as the
Thames, where the trout are cannibals and run very large,
ordinary trout-flies are of little use, and the fly-fisher's only

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chance is to use a big fly and " work " it, casting across and
down stream. The big fly has also been found serviceable with
the great fish of Ntew Zealand and with the inhabitants of such
a piece of water as Blagdon Lake near Bristol, where the trout
run very large. For this kind of fishing much stronger tackle
and a heavier rod are required than for catching fish that seldom
exceed the pound.

Dry Fly. — Fishing with the floating fly is a device of southern
origin, and the idea no doubt arose from the facts that on the
placid south-country streams the natural fly floats on the surface
and that the trout are accustomed to feed on it there. The
controversy " dry versus wet " was long and spirited, but the
new idea won the day and now not only on the chalk-streams,
but on such stretches of even Highland rivers as are suitable, the
dry-fly man may be seen testing his theories. These theories
are simple and consist in placing before the fish an exact imitation
of the insect on which it is feeding, in such a way that it shall
float down exactly as if it were an insect of the same kind. To
this end special tackle and special methods have been found
necessary. Not only the fly but also the line has to float on the
wa f er; the line is very heavy and therefore the rod (split-cane
or greenheart) must be stiff and powerful; special precautions
have to be taken that the fly shall float unhindered and shall not
" drag "; special casts have to be made to counteract awkward
winds; and, lastly, the matching of the fly with the insect on the
water is a matter of much nicety, for the water-flies are of many
shades and colours. Many brains have busied themselves with
the solution of these problems with such success that dry-fly
fishing is now a finished art. The entomology of the dry-fly
stream has been studied very deeply by Mr F. M. Halford, the
late G. S. Marryat and others, and improvements both in flies
and tackle have been very great. Quite lately, however, there
has been a movement in favour of light rods for dry-fly fishing
as well as wet-fly fishing. The English split-cane rod for dry-fly
work weighs about an ounce to the foot, rather more or rather
less. The American rod of similar action and material weighs
much less — approximately 6 oz. to 10 ft. The light rod, it is
urged, is much less tiring and is quite powerful enough for ordinary
purposes. Against it is claimed that dry-fly fishing is not
"ordinary purposes," that chalk-stream weeds are too strong
and chalk-stream winds too wild for the light rod to be efficient
against them. However, the light rod is growing in popular
favour; British manufacturers are building rods after the
American style; and anglers are taking to them more and more.
The dry-fly method is now practised by many fishermen both in
Germany and France, but it has scarcely found a footing as yet
in the United States or Canada.

Fishing with the Natural Fly. — The natural fly is a very killing
bait for trout, but' its use is not wide-spread except in Ireland.
In Ireland " dapping " with the green drake or the daddy-
longlegs is practised from boats on most of the big loughs. A
light whole-cane rod of stiff build, about 16 ft. in length, is
required with a floss-silk line light enough to be carried out on
the breeze; the " dap " (generally two mayflies or daddy-long-
legs on a small stout- wired hook) is carried out by the breeze and
just allowed to touch the water. When a trout rises it is well to
count " ten " before striking. Very heavy trout are caught in
this manner during the mayfly season. In the North " creeper-
fishing " is akin to this method, but the creeper is the larva of
the stone-fly, not a fly itself, and it is cast more like an ordinary
fly and allowed to sink. Sometimes, however, the mature insect
is used with equally good results. A few anglers still practise
the old style of dapping or " dibbling " after the manner advised
by Izaak Walton. It is a deadly way of fishing small overgrown
brooks. A stiff rod and strong gut are necessary, and a grass-
hopper or almost any large fly will serve for bait.

Other Methods. — The other methods of taking trout principally
employed are spinning, live-baiting and worming. For big river
trout such as those of the Thames a gudgeon or bleak makes the
best spinning or live bait, for great lake trout (Jerox) a small fish
of their own species and for smaller trout a minnow. There are
numberless artificial spinning-baits which kill well at times, the

Devon being perhaps the favourite. The use of the drop-minnow,
which is trolling on a lesser scale, is a killing method employed
more in the north of England than elsewhere. The worm is
mostly deadly in thick water, so deadly that it is looked on
askance. But there is a highly artistic mode of fishing known as
" clear- water worming." This is most successful when rivers are
low and weather hot, and it needs an expert angler to succeed in
it. The worm has to be cast up-stream rather like a fly, and the
method is little inferior to fly-fishing in delicacy and difficulty.
The other baits for trout, or rather the other baits which they
will take sometimes, are legion. Wasp-grubs, maggots, cater-
pillars, small frogs, bread — there is very little the fish will not
take. But except in rural districts little effort is made to catch
trout by means less orthodox than the fly, minnow and worm,
and the tendency nowadays both in England and America is to
restrict anglers where possible to the use of the artificial fly only.

Grayling. — The only other member of the salmon family in
England which gives much sport to the fly-fisher is the grayling,
a fish which possesses the recommendation of rising well in winter.
It can be caught with either wet or dry fly, and with the same
tackle as trout, which generally inhabit the same stream. Gray-
ling will take most small trout-flies, but there are many patterns
of fly tied specially for them, most of them founded on the red
tag or the green insect. Worms and maggots are also largely
used in some waters for grayling, and there is a curious con-
trivance known as the " grasshopper," which is a sort of com-
promise between the fly and bait. It consists of a leaded hook
round the shank of which is twisted bright-coloured wool. The
point is tipped with maggots, and the lure, half artificial, half
natural, is dropped into deep holes and worked up and down in
the water. In some places the method is very killing. The
grayling has been very prominent of late years owing to the
controversy " grayling versus trout." Many people hold that
grayling injure a trout stream by devouring trout-ova and trout-
food, by increasing too rapidly and in other ways. Beyond,
however, proving the self-evident fact that a stream can only
support a given amount of fish-life, the grayling's opponents do
not seem to have made out a very good case, for no real evidence
of its injuring trout has been adduced.

Char. — The chars (Salvelinus) are a numerous family widely
distributed over the world, but in Great Britain are not very
important to the angler. One well-defined species (Salvelinus
alpinus) is found in some lakes of Wales and Scotland, but
principally in Westmorland acd Cumberland. It sometimes
takes a small fly but is a ore cften caught with small artificial
spinning-baits. The fish seldom exceeds if lb in Great Britain,
though in Scandinavia it is caught up to 5 Jb or more. There are
some important chars in America, fontinalis being one of the most
esteemed. Some members of the genus occasionally attain a size
scarcely excelled by the salmon. Among them are the Great Lake
trout of America, Cristivomer namaycush, and the Danubian
" salmon " or huchen, Salmo hucho. Both of these fish are caught
principally with spinning-baits, but both will on occasion take a
salmon-fly, though not with any freedom after they have reached
a certain size. An attempt has been made to introduce huchen
into the Thames but at the time of writing the result cannot yet
be estimated.

Pike. — The pike (Esox lucius), which after the Salmonidae is
the most valued sporting fish in Great Britain, is a fish of prey
pure and simple. Though it will occasionally take a large fly, a
worm or other ground-bait, its systematic capture is only essayed
with small fish or artificial spinning-baits. A live bait is supposed
to be the most deadly lure for big pike, probably because it is the
method employed by most anglers. But spinning is more artistic
and has been found quite successful enough by those who give it a
fair and full trial. Trolling, the method of " sink and draw " with
a dead bait, referred to previously in this article, is not much
practised nowadays, though at one time it was very popular. It
was given up because the traditional form of trolling-tackle was
such that the bait had to be swallowed by the pike before the hook
would take hold, and that necessitated killing all fish caught,
whether large or small. The same objection formerly applied to

ANGLING

live-baiting with what was known as a gorge-hook. Now, how-
ever, what is called snap-tackle is almost invariably used in
live-baiting, and the system is by some few anglers extended to
the other method too. Pike are autumn and winter fish and are
at their best in December. They grow to a very considerable size,
fish of 20 lb being regarded as " specimens '.' and an occasional
thirty-pounder rewarding the zealous and fortunate. The
heaviest pike caught with a rod in recent years which is sufficiently
authenticated, weighed 37 ft), but heavier specimens are said to
have been taken in Irish lakes. River pike up to about 10 lb in
weight are excellent eating.

America has several species of pike, of which the muskelunge
of the great lake region (Esox masquinongy) is the most important.
It is a very fine fish, excelling Esox lucius both in size and looks.
From the angler's point of view it may be considered simply as a
large pike and may be caught by similar methods. It occasion-
ally reaches the weight of 80 lb or perhaps more. The pickerel
{Esox reticulatus) is the only other of the American pikes which
gives any sport. It reaches a respectable size, but is as inferior to
the pike as the pike is to the muskelunge.

Perch. — Next to the pikes come the perches, also predatory
fishes. The European perch (Perca fluviatilis) has a place by
itself in the affections of anglers. When young it is easy to catch
by almost any method of fishing, and a large number of Walton's
disciples have been initiated into the art with its help. Worms
and small live-baits are the principal lures, but at times the fish
will take small bright artificial spinning-baits well, and odd attrac-
tions such as boiled shrimps, caddis-grubs, small frogs, maggots,
wasp-grubs, &c. are sometimes successful. The drop-minnow is
one of the best methods of taking perch. Very occasionally, and
principally in shallow pools, the fish will take an artificial fly
greedily, a small salmon-fly being the best thing to use in such a
case. A perch of 2 lb is a good fish, and a specimen of 4J lb
about the limit of angling expectation. There have been rare
instances of perch over 5 lb, and there are legends of eight-
pounders, which, however, need authentication.

Black Bass. — The yellow perch of America (Perca flavescens) is
very much like its European cousin in appearance and habits, but
it is not so highly esteemed by American anglers, because they
are fortunate in being possessed of a better fish in the black bass,
another member of the perch family. There are two kinds of black
bass (Micropterus salmoides and Micropterus dolomieu), the large-
mouthed and the small-mouthed. The first is more a lake and
pond fish than the second, and they are seldom found in the same
waters. As the black bass is a fly-taking fish and a strong fighter,
it is as valuable to the angler as a trout and is highly esteemed.
Bass-flies are sui generis, but incline more to the nature of salmon-
flies than trout-flies. An artificial frog cast with a fly-rod or very
light spinning-rod is also a favourite lure. For the rest the fish
will take almost anything in the nature of worms or small fish,
like its cousin the perch. A 4 lb bass is a good fish, but five-
pounders are not uncommon. Black bass have to some extent
been acclimatized in France.

The ruffe or pope (Acerina vulgaris) is a little fish common in the
Thames and many other slow-flowing English rivers. It is very
like the perch in shape but lacks the dusky bars which distinguish
the other, and is spotted with dark brown spots on a golden olive
background. It is not of much use to the angler as it seldom
exceeds 3 oz. in weight. It takes small worms, maggots and
similar baits greedily, and is often a nuisance when the angler is
expecting better fish. Allied to the perches is the pike-perch, of
which two species are of some importance to the angler, one the
wall-eye of eastern America (Stizostedion vitreuvi) and the other
the zander of Central Europe {Sandrus lucioperca). The last
especially is a fine fighter, occasionally reaching a weight of 20 lb.
It is usually caught by spinning, but will take live-baits, worms
and other things of that nature. The Danube may be described
as its headquarters. It is a fish whose sporting importance will be
more realized as anglers on the continent become more numerous.

Cyprinidae. — The carp family (Cyprinidae) is a large one and
its members constitute the majority of English sporting fishes.
In America the various kinds of chub, sucker, dace, shiner, &c.

are little esteemed and are regarded as spoils for the youthful
angler only, or as baits for the better fish in which the continent is
so rich. In England, however, the Cyprinidae have an honoured
place in the affections of all who angle " at the bottom," while in
Europe some of them have a commercial value as food-fishes. In
India at least one member of the family, the mahseer, takes rank
with the salmon as a " big game " fish.

Carp, Tench, Barbel, Bream. — The family as represented in
England may be roughly divided into two groups, those which
feed on the bottom purely and those which occasionally take flies.
The first consists of carp, tench, barbel and bream. Of these
carp, tench and bream are either river or pool fish, while the
barbel is found only in rivers, principally in the Thames and
Trent. The carp grows to a great size, 20 lb being not unknown;
tench are big at 5 lb; barbel have been caught up to 14 lb or
rather more; and bream occasionally reach 8 lb, while a fish of
over n lb is on record. All these fish are capricious feeders,
carp and barbel being particularly undependable. In some
waters it seems to be impossible to catch the large specimens, and
the angler who seeks to gain trophies in either branch of the sport
needs both patience and perseverance. Tench and bream are not
quite so difficult. The one fish can sometimes be caught in great
quantities, and the other is generally to be enticed by the man
who knows how to set about it. Two main principles have to be
observed in attacking all these fish, ground-baiting and early
rising. Ground-baiting consists in casting food into the water so
as to attract the fish to a certain spot and to induce them to feed.
Without it very little can be done with shy and large fish of these
species. Early rising is necessary because they only feed freely,
as a rule, from daybreak till about three hours after sun-rise. The
heat of a summer or early autumn day makes them sluggish, but
an hour or two in the evening is sometimes remunerative. The
bait for them all should usually lie on the bottom, and it consists
mainly of worms, wasp and other grubs, pastes of various kinds;
and for carp, and sometimes bream, of vegetable baits such as
small boiled potatoes, beans, peas, stewed wheat, pieces of
banana, &c. None of these fish feed well in winter.

Roach, Rudd, Dace, Chub. — The next group of Cyprinidae
consists of fish which will take a bait similar to those already
mentioned and also a fly. The sizes which limit the ordinary
angler's aspirations are roach about 2 lb, rudd about 2§ lb,
dace about 1 lb and chub about 5 lb. There are instances
of individuals heavier than this, one or two roach and many
rudd of over 3 lb being on record, while dace have been
caught up to 1 lb 6 oz., and chub of over 7 lb are not
unknown. Roach only take a fly as a rule in very hot weather
when they are near the surface, or early in the season when they
are on the shallows ; the others will take it freely all through the
summer. Ordinary trout flies do well enough for all four species,
but chub often prefer something larger, and big bushy lures called
" palmers," which represent caterpillars, are generally used for
them. The fly may be used either wet or dry for all these fish, and
there is little to choose between the methods as regards effective-
ness. Fly-fishing for these fish is a branch of angling which might
be more practised than it is, as the sport is a very fair substitute
for trout fishing. Roach, chub and dace feed on bottom food and
give good sport all the winter.

Gudgeon, Bleak, Minnow, &c. — The small fry of European
waters, gudgeon, bleak, minnow, loach, stickleback and bullhead,
are principally of value as bait for other fish, though the first-
named species gives pretty sport on fine tackle and makes a
succulent dish. Small red worms are the best bait for gudgeon
and minnows, a maggot or small fly for bleak, and the rest are
most easily caught in a small-meshed net. The loach is used
principally in Ireland as a trout bait, and the ether two are of
small account as hook-baits, though sticklebacks are a valuable
form of food for trout in lakes and pools.

Mahseer. — Among the carps of India, several of which give
good sport, special mention must be made of the mahseer
(Barbus mosal), a fish which rivals the salmon both in size and
strength. It reaches a weight of 60 lb and sometimes more
and is fished for in much the same manner as salmon, with the

ANGLING

difference that after about 10 lb it takes a spinning-bait, usually
a heavy spoon-bait, better than a fly.

Cat-fish. — None of the fresh-water cat-fishes (of which no
example is found in England) are what may be called sporting
fish, but several may be caught with rod and line. There are
several kinds in North America, and some of them are as heavy
as 150 lb, but the most important is the wels (Silurus glanis)
of the Danube and neighbouring waters. This is the largest
European fresh-water fish, and it is credited with a weight of
300 lb or more. It is a bottom feeder and will take a fish-bait
either alive or dead; it is said occasionally to run at a spinning
bait when used very deep.

Burbot. — The burbot (Lota vulgaris) is the only fresh-water
member of the cod family in Great Britain, and it is found only
in a few slow-flowing rivers such as the Trent, and there not often,
probably because it is a fish of sluggish habits which feeds only
at night. It reaches a weight of 3 lb or more, and will take most
flesh or fish baits on the bottom. The burbot of America has
similar characteristics.

Sturgeon. — The sturgeons, of which there are a good many
species in Europe and America, are of no use to the angler. They
are anadromous fishes of which little more can be said than that
a specimen might take a bottom bait once in a way. In Russia
they are sometimes caught on long lines armed with baited hooks,
and occasionally an angler hooks one. Such a case was reported
from California in The Field of the 19th of August 1905.

Shad. — Two other anadromous fish deserve notice. The first
is the shad, a herring-like fish of which two species, allice and
twaite (Clupea alosa and C. finta), ascend one or two British
and several continental rivers in the spring. The twaite is the
more common, and in the Severn, Wye and Teme it sometimes
gives very fair sport to anglers, taking worm and occasionally
fly or small spinning bait. It is a good fighter, and reaches a
weight of about 3 lb. Its sheen when first caught is particularly
beautiful. America also has its shads.

Flounder. — The other is the flounder (Pleuronectes flesus) , the
only flat-fish which ascends British rivers. It is common a long
way up such rivers as the Severn, far above tidal influence, and
it will take almost any flesh-bait used on the bottom. A flounder
of 1 lb is, in a river, a large one, but heavier examples are some-
times caught.

Eel. — The eel (Anguilla vulgaris) is regarded by the angler
more as a nuisance than a sporting fish, but when of considerable
size (and it often reaches a weight of 8 lb or more) it is a splendid
fighter and stronger than almost any fish that swims. Its life
history has long been disputed, but it is now accepted that it
breeds in the sea and ascends rivers in its youth. It is found
practically everywhere, and its occurrence in isolated ponds to
which it has never been introduced by human agency has given
rise to a theory that it travels overland as well as by water. The
best baits for eels are worms and small fish, and the best time
to use them is at night or in thundery or very wet weather.

Sea Angling.

Sea angling is attended by almost as many refinements of
tackle and method as fresh-water angling. The chief differences
are differences of locality and the habits of the fish. To a certain
extent sea angling may also be divided into three classes — fishing
on the surface with the fly, at mid-water with spinning or other
bait, and on the bottom; but the first method is only practicable
at certain times and in certain places, and the others, from the
great depths that often have to be sounded and the heavy
weights that have to be used in searching them, necessitate
shorter and stouter rods, larger reels and stronger tackle than
iresh-water anglers employ. Also, of course, the sea-fisherman
is liable to come into conflict with very large fish occasionally.
In British waters the monster usually takes the form of a skate
or halibut. A specimen of the former weighing 194 lb has been
landed off the Irish coast with rod and line in recent years. In
American waters there is a much greater opportunity of catching
fish of this calibre.

Great Game Fishes. — There are several giants of the sea which

are regularly pursued by American anglers, chief among them
being the tarpon (Tarpon allanticus) and the tuna or tunny
(Thunnus thynnus), which have been taken on rod and line
up to 223 lb and 251 lb respectively. Jew-fish and black
sea-bass of over 400 lb have been taken on rod and line, and
there are many other fine sporting fish of large size which give
the angler exciting hours on the reefs of Florida, or the coasts
of California, Texas or Mexico. Practically all of them are taken
with a fish-bait either live or dead, and used stationary on the
bottom or in mid-water trailed behind a boat.

British Game Fishes. — On a much smaller scale are the fishes
most esteemed in British waters. The bass (Labrax lupus)
heads the list as a plucky and rather difficult opponent. A
fish of 10 lb is a large one, but fifteen-pounders have been taken.
Small or " school " bass up to 3 lb or 4 lb may sometimes
be caught with the fly (generally a roughly constructed thing
with big wings), and when they are really taking the sport is
magnificent. In some few localities it is possible to cast for
them from rocks with a salmon rod, but usually a boat is required.
In other places bass may be caught from the shore with fish bait
used on the bottom in quite shallow water. They may again
sometimes be caught in mid-water, and in fact there are few
methods and few lures employed in sea angling which will not
account for them at times. The pollack (Gadus pollachius)
and coal-fish (Gadus virens) come next in esteem. Both in some
places reach a weight of 20 lb or more, and both when young
will take a fly. Usually, however, the best sport is obtained
by trailing some spinning-bait, such as an artificial or natural
sand-eel, behind a boat. Sometimes, and especially for pollack,
the bait must be kept near the bottom and heavy weights on the
line are necessary; the coal-fish are more prone to come to the
surface for feeding. The larger grey mullet (Mugil capito) is
a great favourite with many anglers, as it is extremely difficult
to hook, and when hooked fights strongly. Fishing for mullet is
more akin to fresh-water fishing than any branch of sea-angling,
and indeed can be carried on in almost fresh water, for the fish
frequent harbours, estuaries and tidal pools. They can be
caught close to the surface, at mid-water and at the bottom,
and as a rule vegetable baits, such as boiled macaroni, or rag-
worms are found to answer best. Usually ground-baiting is
necessary, and the finer the tackle used the greater is the chance
of sport. Not a few anglers fish with a float as if for river fish.
The fish runs up to about 8 lb in weight. The cod (Gadus
morhua) grows larger and fights less gamely than any of the fish
already mentioned. It is generally caught with bait used on
the bottom from a boat, but in places codling, or young cod,
give some sport to anglers fishing from the shore. The mackerel
(Scomber scomber) gives the best sport to a bait, usually a strip
of fish skin, trailed behind a boat fairly close to the surface, but
it will sometimes feed on the bottom. Mackerel on light tackle
are game fighters, though they do not usually much exceed 2 lb.
Whiting and whiting-pout (Gadus merlangus and Gadus luscus)
both feed on or near the bottom, do not grow to any great size, and
are best sought with fine tackle, usually an arrangement of three
or four hooks at intervals above a lead which is called a " pater-
noster." If one or more of the hooks are on the bottom the tackle
will do for different kinds of flat fish as well, flounders and dabs
being the two species most often caught by anglers. The bream
(Pagellus centrodontus) is another bottom-feeder which resembles
the fresh-water bream both in appearance and habits. It is
an early morning or rather a nocturnal fish, and grows to a weight
of 3 lb or 4 lb. Occasionally it will feed in mid-water or even
close tf- the surface. The conger eel (Conger vulgaris) is another
night-feeder, which gives fine sport, as it grows to a great size,
and is very powerful. Strong tackle is essential for conger
fishing, as so powerful an opponent in the darkness cannot be
given any law. The bait must be on or near the bottom. There
are, of course, many other fish which come to the angler's rod
at times, but the list given is fairly- complete as representing the
species which are especially sought. Beside them are occasional
(in some waters too frequent) captures such as dog-fish and sharks,
skates and rays. Many of them run to a great size and give

ANGLING— ANGLO-NORMAN

plenty of sport on a rod, though they are not as a rule welcomed.
Lastly, it must be mentioned that certain of the Salmonidae,
smelts (Osmerns eperlanus), sea-trout, occasionally brown trout,
and still more occasionally salmon can be caught in salt water
either in sea-lochs or at the mouths of rivers. Smelts are best
fished for with tiny hooks tied on fine gut and baited with frag-
ments of shrimp, ragworm, and other delicacies.

Modern Authorities and Reference Books. — History and
Literature : Prof. A. N. Mayer, Sport with Gun and Rod (New York
and Edinburgh), with a chapter on " The Primitive Fish-Hook," by
Barnet Phillips; Dr R. Munro, Lake Dwellings of Europe (London,
1890), with many illustrations and descriptions of early fish-hooks,
&c. ; H. Cholmondeley Pennell and others, Fishing Gossip (Edin-
burgh, 1866), contains a paper on " Fishing and Fish-Hooks of the
Earliest Date," by Jonathan Couch; C. D. Badham, Prose
Halieutics (London, 1854), full of curious lore, relating, however,
more to ichthyophagy than angling; The Angler's Note-Booh and
Naturalist's Record (London, 1st series 1881, 2nd series 1888),
edited by T. Satchell, the two volumes containing much valuable
matter on angling history, literature, and other topics; R. Blakey,
Angling Literature (London, 1856), inaccurate and badly arranged,
but containing a good deal of curious matter not to be found else-
where; O. Lambert, Angling Literature in England (London, 1881),
a good little general survey; J. J. Manley, Fish and Fishing
(London, 1881), with chapters on fishing literature, &c. ; R. B.
Marston, Walton and Some Earlier Writers on Fish and Fishing
(London and New York, 1894); Piscatorial Society's Papers (vol. i.
London, 1890), contains a paper on " The Useful and Fine Arts in
their Relation to Fish and Fishing," by S. C. Harding; Super
Flumina (Anon.; London, 1904), gives passim useful information on
fishing literature; T. Westwood and T. Satchell, Bibliotheca
Piscatoria (London, 1883) an admirable bibliography of the sport:
together with the supplement prepared by R. B. Marston, 1 901, it
may be considered wonderfully complete.

Methods and Practice. — General Fresh-water Fishing: F. Francis,
A Book on Angling (London, 1885), though old, a thoroughly sound
text-book, particularly good on salmon fishing; H. C. Pennell and
others, Fishing — Salmon and Trout and Pike and Coarse Fish (Bad-
minton Library, 2 vols., London, 1904); John Bickerdyke, The
Book of the All-Round Angler (London, 1900) ; Horace G. Hutchinson
and others, Fishing (Country Life Series, 2 vols., London, 1904),
contains useful ichthyological notes by G. A. Boulenger, a chapter
on " The Feeding of Salmon in Fresh-Water," by Dr J. Kingston
Barton, and a detailed account of the principal salmon rivers of
Norway, by C. E. Radclyffe.

Salmon and Trout. — Major J. P. Traherne, The Habits of the
Salmon (London, 1889); G. M. Kelson, The Salmon Fly (London,
1895), contains instructions on dressing salmon-flies; A. E.
Gathorne Hardy, Tlie Salmon (" Fur, Feather and Fin Series,"
London, 1898) ; Sir H. Maxwell, Bt., Salmon and Sea Trout (Angler's
Library, London, 1898); Sir E. Grey, Bt., Fly Fishing (Haddon
Hall Library, London and New York, 1899); W. Earl Hodgson,
Salmon Fishing (London, 1906), contains a series of coloured plates
of salmon flies; Marquis of Granby, The Trout (" Fur, Feather and
Fin Series," London, 1898). Wet Fly Fishing: W. C. Stewart,
The Practical Angler (London, 1905), a new edition of an old but
still valuable work; E. M. Tod, Wet Fly Fishing (London, 1903);
W. Earl Hodgson, Trout Fishing (London, 1905), contains a scries
of admirable coloured plates of artificial flies. Dry Fly Fishing:
F. M. Halford, Dry-Fly Fishing in Theory and Practice (London,
1902), the standard work on the subject; G. A. B. Dewar, The
Book of the Dry Fly (London, 1897). Grayling: T. E. Pritt, The
Book of the Grayling (Leeds, 1888); H. A. Rolt, Grayling Fishing in
South Country Streams (London, 1905).

Coarse Fish. — C. H. Wheeley, Coarse Fish (Angler's Library,
London, 1897); J. W. Martin, Practical Fishing (London); Float-
fishing and Spinning (London, 1885) ; W. Senior and others, Pike
and Perch (" Fur, Feather and Fin Series," London, 1900); A. J.
Jardine, Pike and Perch (Angler's Library, London, 1898); H. C.
Pennell, The Book of the Pike (London, 1884); Greville Fennell,
The Book of the Roach (London, 1884).

Sea Fishing. — J. C. Wilcocks, The Sea Fisherman (London,
1884); John Bickerdyke (and others), Sea Fishing (Badminton
Library, London, 1895); Practical Letters to Sea Fishers (London,
1902); F. G. Aflalo, Sea Fish (Angler's Library, London, 1897);
P. L. Haslope, Practical Sea Fishing (London, 1905).

Tackle, Flies, afc. — H. C. Pennell, Modern Improvements in
Fishing Tackle (London, 1887); H. P. Wells, Fly Rods and Fly
Tackle (New York and London, 1901); A. Ronalds, The Fly-Fisher's
Entomology (London, 1883); F. M. Halford, Dry Fly Entomology
(London, 1902) ; Floating Flies and How to Dress them (London,
1886); T. E. Pritt, North Country Flies (London, 1886); H. G.
M'Clelland, How to tie Flies for Trout and Grayling (London, 1905);
Capt. J. H. Hale, How to tie Salmon Flies (London, 1892); F. G.
Aflalo, John Bickerdyke and C. H. Wheeley, How to buy Fishing
Tackle (London).

Ichthyology, Fislieries, Fish-Culture, &c. — Dr Francis Day, Fishes
of Great Britain and Ireland (2 vols., London, 1889); British and

Irish Salmonidae (London, 1887) ; Dr A. C. L. G. Giinther, Introduc-
tion to the Study of Fishes (London, 1880) ; Dr D. S. Jordan, A Guide
to the Study of Fishes (2 vols., New York and London, 1905); F.
Francis, Practical Management of Fisheries (London, 1 883); Fish
Culture (London, 1865) ; F. M. Halford, Making a Fishery (London,
1902); J. J. Armistead, An Angler's Paradise (Dumfries, 1902);
F. Mather, Modern Fish-Culture (New York, 1899) ; Livingstone
Stone, Domesticated Trout (Charlestown and London, 1896).

Angling Guide Books, Geographical Information, &c. — Great
Britain: The Angler's Diary (London), gives information about
most important waters in the British Isles, and about some foreign
waters, published annually ; The Sportsman's and Tourist's Guide
to Scotland (London), a good guide to angling in Scotland, published
twice a year; Augustus Grimble, The Salmon Rivers of Scotland
(London, 1900, 4 vols.) ; The Salmon Rivers of Ireland (London,
1903); The Salmon and Sea Trout Rivers of England and Wales
(London, 1904, 2 vols.), this fine series gives minute information as
to salmon pools, flies, seasons, history, catches, &c. ; W. M. Gallichan,
Fishing in Wales (London, 1903) ; Fishing in Derbyshire (London,
I 9°5) ; J- Watson, English Lake District Fisheries (London, 1899) ;
C. Wade, Exmoor Streams (London, 1903); G. A. B. Dewar, South
Country Trout Streams (London, 1899); "Hi Regan," How and
Where to Fish in Ireland (London, 1900) ; E. S. Shrubsole, The Land
of Lakes (London, 1906), a guide to fishing in County Donegal).
Europe: " Palmer Hackle," Hints on Angling (London, 1846),
contains " suggestions for angling excursions in France and Bel-
gium," but they are too old to be of much service; W. M. Gallichan,
Fishing and Travel in Spain (London, 1905) ; G. W. Hartley, Wild
Sport with Gun, Rifle and Salmon Rod (Edinburgh, 1903), contains
a chapter on huchen fishing; Max von dem Borne, Wegweiser fur
Angler durch Deutschland, Oesterreich und die Schweiz (Berlin, 1877),
a book of good conception and arrangement, and still useful, though
out of date in many particulars; Illustrierte Angler-Schule (der
deutschen Fischerei Zeitung), Stettin, contains good chapters on the
wels and huchen; H. Storck, Der Angelsport (Munich, 1898),
contains a certain amount of geographical information; E. B.
Kennedy, Thirty Seasons in Scandinavia (London, 1904), contains
useful information about fishing; General E. F. Burton, Trouling
in Norway (London, 1897); Abel Chapman, Wild Norway (London,
1897); F. Sandeman, Angling Travels in Norway (London, 1895).
America: C. F. Holder, Big Game Fishes of the United States (New
York, 1903) ; J. A. Henshall, Bass, Pike, Perch and Pickerel (New
York, 1903) ; Dean Sage and others, Salmon and Trout (New York,
1902) ; E. T. D. Chambers, Angler's Guide to Eastern Canada (Quebec,
1899); Rowland Ward, The English Angler in Florida (London,
1898) ; J. Turner Turner, The Giant Fish of Florida (London, 1902).
India: H. S. Thomas, The Rod in India (London, 1897); "Skene
Dhu," The Mighty Mahseer (Madras, 1906), contains a chapter on
the acclimatization of trout in India and Ceylon. New Zealand :
W. H. Spackman, Trout in New Zealand (London, 1894); Capt.
Hamilton, Trout Fishing and Sport in Maoriland (Wellington, 1905),
contains a valuable section on fishing waters.

Fishery Law. — G. C. Oke, A Handy Book of the Fishery Laws
(edited by J. W. Willis Band and A. C. M'Barnet, London,
I9°3) •

ANGLO-ISRAELITE THEORY, the contention that the
British people in the United Kingdom, its colonies, and the
United States, are the racial descendants of the " ten tribes "
forming the kingdom of Israel, large numbers of whom were
deported by Sargon king of Assyria on the fall of Samaria in
721 B.C. The theory (which is fully set forth in a book called
Philo-Israel) rests on premises which are deemed by scholars —
both theological and anthropological — to be utterly unsound.

ANGLO-NORMAN LITERATURE:— The French language (q.v.j
came over to England with William the Conqueror. During the
whole of the 12th century it shared with Latin the distinction of
being the literary language of England, and it was in use at the
court until the 14th century. It was not until the reign of Henry
IV. that English became the native tongue of the kings of
England. After the loss of the French provinces, schools for the
teaching of French were established in England, among the most
celebrated of which we may quote that of Marlborough.
The language then underwent certain changes which gradually
distinguished it from the French spoken in France; but, except
for some graphical characteristics, from which certain rules of
pronunciation are to be inferred, the changes to which the
language was subjected were the individual modifications of
the various authors, so that, while we may still speak of Anglo-
Norman writers, an Anglo-Norman language, properly so
called, gradually ceased to exist. The prestige enjoyed by the
French language, which, in the 14th century, the author of the
Maniere de language calls " le plus bel et le plus gracious language

ANGLO-NORMAN LITERATURE

et plus noble parler, apres latin d'escole, qui soit au monde et
de touz genz mieulx prisee et amee que nul autre (quar Dieux
le fist si douce et amiable principalement a l'oneur et loenge de
luy mesmes. Et pour ce il peut comparer au parler des angels
du ciel, pour la grand doulceur et biaultee d'icel)," was such
that it was not till 1363 that the chancellor opened the parlia-
mentary session with an English speech. And although the
Hundred Years' War led to a decline in the study of French
and the disappearance of Anglo-Norman literature, the French
language continued, through some vicissitudes, to be the classical
language of the courts of justice until the 17 th century. It is
still the language of the Channel Islands, though there too it
tends more and more to give way before the advance of
English.

It will be seen from the above that the most flourishing period
of Anglo-Norman literature was from the beginning of the 12th
century to the end of the first quarter of the 13 th. The end of
this period is generally said to coincide with the loss of the
French provinces to Philip Augustus, but literary and political
history do not correspond quite so precisely, and the end of the
first period would be more accurately denoted by the appearance
of the history of William the Marshal in 1225 (published for the
Societe de I'histoire de France, by Paul Meyer, 3 vols., 1891-1901).
It owes its brilliancy largely to the protection accorded by Henry
II. of England to the men of letters of his day. " He could speak
French and Latin well, and is said to have known something of
every tongue between 'the Bay of Biscay and the Jordan.' He
was probably the most highly educated sovereign of his day, and
amid all his busy active life he never lost his interest in literature
and intellectual discussion; his hands were never empty, they
always had either a bow or a book " {Diet, of Nat. Biog.). Wace
and Benoit de Sainte-More compiled their histories at his bidding,
and it was in his reign that Marie de France composed her poems.
An event with which he was closely connected, viz. the murder of
Thomas Becket, gave rise to a whole series of writings, some of
which are purely Anglo-Norman. In his time appeared the
works of Beroul and Thomas respectively, as well as some of the
most celebrated of the Anglo-Norman romans d'aventure. It is
important to keep this fact in mind when studying the different
works which Anglo-Norman literature has left us. We will
examine these works briefly, grouping them into narrative,
didactic, hagiographic, lyric, satiric and dramatic literature.

Narrative Literature: (a) Epic and Romance. — The French
epic came over to England at an early date. We know that the
Chanson de Roland was sung at the battle of Hastings, and we
possess Anglo-Norman MSS. of a few chansons de geste. The
Pelerinage de Charlemagne (Koschwitz, Altfranzosische Bibliothek,
1883) was, for instance, only preserved in an Anglo-Norman
manuscript of the British Museum (now lost), although the
author was certainly a Parisian. The oldest manuscript of the
Chanson de Roland that we possess is also a manuscript written
in England, and amongst the others of less importance we may
mention La Chancun de Willame, the MS. of which has (June
1903) been published in facsimile at Chiswick (cf. Paul Meyer,
Romania, xxxii. 597-618). Although the diffusion of epic poetry
in England did not actually inspire any new chansons de geste, it
developed the taste for this class of literature, and the epic style
in which the tales of Horn, of Bovon de Hampton, of Guy of
Warwick (still unpublished), of Waldef (still unpublished), and of
Fulk Fitz Warine are treated, is certainly partly due to this
circumstance. Although the last of these works has come down
to us only in a prose version, it contains unmistakable signs of a
previous poetic form, and what we possess is really only a render-
ing into prose similar to the transformations undergone by many
of the chansons de geste (cf. L. Brandin, Introduction to Fulk Fits
Warine, London, 1904).

The interinfluence of French and English literature can be
studied in the Breton romances and the romans d'aventure even
better than in the epic poetry of the period. The Lay of Orpheus
is known to us only through an English imitation; the Lai du
cor was composed by Robert Biket, an Anglo-Norman poet of
the 12th century (Wulff, Lund, 1888). The lais of Marie de

France were written in England, and the greater number of the
romances composing the matiere de Brelagne seem to have passed
from England to France through the medium of Anglo-Norman.
The legends of Merlin and Arthur, collected in the Historia Regum
Britanniae by Geoffrey of Monmouth (f 1 1 54) , passed into French
literature, bearing the character which the bishop of St Asaph
had stamped upon them. Chretien de Troye's Perceval (c. 1175)
is doubtless based on an Anglo-Norman poem. Robert de Boron
(c. 1 21 5) took the subject of his Merlin (published by G. Paris
and J. Ulrich, 1886, 2 vols., SocietS des Anciens Textes) from
Geoffrey of Monmouth. Finally, the most celebrated love-legend
of the middle ages, and one of the most beautiful inventions of
world-literature, the story of Tristan and Iseult, tempted two
authors, Beroul and Thomas, the first of whom is probably, and
the second certainly, Anglo-Norman (see Arthurian Legend;
Grail, The Holy; Tristan). One Folie Tristan was composed
in England in the last years of the 12th century. (For all these
questions see Soc. des Anc. Textes, Muret's ed. 1903; Bedier's
ed. 1902-1905). Less fascinating than the story of Tristan
and Iseult, but nevertheless of considerable interest, are the two
romans d'aventure of Hugh of Rutland, Ipomedon (published by
Kolbing and Koschwitz, Breslau, 1889) and Protesilaus (still
unpublished) written about 1185. The first relates the adven-
tures of a knight who married the young duchess of Calabria,
niece of King Meleager of Sicily, but was loved by Medea, the
king's wife. The second poem is the sequel to Ipomedon, and
deals with the wars and subsequent reconciliation between
Ipomedon's sons, Daunus, the elder, lord of Apulia, and Prote-
silaus, the younger, lord of Calabria. Protesilaus defeats Daunus,
who had expelled him from Calabria. He saves his brother's
life, is reinvested with the dukedom of Calabria, and, after the
death of Daunus, succeeds to Apulia. He subsequently marries
Medea, King Meleager's widow, who had helped him to seize
Apulia, having transferred her affection for Ipomedon to his
younger son (cf. Ward, Cat. of- Rom., i. 728). To these two
romances by an Anglo-Norman author, Amadas et Idoine, of
which we only possess a continental version, is to be added.
Gaston Paris has proved indeed that the original was composed
in England in the 12th century (An English Miscellany presented
to Dr Furnivall in Honour of his Seventy-fifth Birthday, Oxford,
1 901, 386-394). The Anglo-Norman poem on the Life of Richard
Cceur de Lion is lost, and an English version only has been pre-
served. About 1250 Eustace of Kent introduced into England
the roman d' Alexandre in his Roman de toute chevalerie, many
passages of which have been imitated in one of the oldest English
poems on Alexander, namely, King Alisaunder (P. Meyer,
Alexandre le grand, Paris, 1886, ii. 273, and Weber, Metrical
Romances, Edinburgh).

(b) Fableaux, Fables and Religious Tales. — In spite of the
incontestable popularity enjoyed by this class of literature, we
have only some half-dozen fableaux written in England, viz. Le
chevalier d la corbeille, Le chevalier qui faisait parler les muets, Le
chevalier, sa dame et un clerc, Les trois dames, La gageure, Le
pre.tre d' Alison, La bourgeoise d'Orleans (Bedier, Les Fabliaux,
1895). As to fables, one of the most popular collections in the
middle ages was that written by Marie de France, which she
claimed to have translated from King Alfred. In the Contes
moralises, written by Nicole Bozon shortly before 1320 (Soc. Anc.
Textes, 1889), a few fables bear a strong resemblance to those of
Marie de France.

The religious tales deal mostly with the Mary Legends, and
have been handed down to us in three collections:

(i.) The Adgar's collection. Most of these were translated
from William of Malmesbury (tii43?) by Adgar in the 12th
century ("Adgar's Marien-Legenden," Altfr. Biblioth. ix.; J. A.
Herbert, Rom. xxxii. 394).

(ii.) The collection of Everardof Gateley, a monk of St Edmund
at Bury, who wrote c. 1250 three Mary Legends (Rom. xxix. 27).

(iii.) An anonymous collection of sixty Mary Legends composed
c. 1250 (Brit. Museum Old Roy. 20 B, xiv.), some of which have
been published in Suchier's Bibliotheca Normannica; in the
Altf. Bibl. See also Mussafia, " Studien zu den mittelalterlichen

ANGLO-NORMAN LITERATURE

Marien-legenden " in Sitzungsb. der Wien. Akademie (t. cxiii.,
ex v., cxix., exxiii., exxix.).

Another set of religious and moralizing tales is to be found in
Chardri's Set dormans and Josaphat, c. 1216 (Koch, Altfr. Bibl.,
1880; G. Paris, Poemes et legendes du moyen dge).

(c) History. — Of far greater importance, however, are the
works which constitute Anglo-Norman historiography. The
first Anglo-Norman historiographer is Geoffrey Gaimar, who
wrote his Estorie des Angles (between 1147 and 1151) for Dame
Constance, wife of Robert Fitz-Gislebert {The Anglo-Norman
Metrical Chronicle, Hardy and Martin, i. ii., London,i888). This
history comprised a first part (now lost), which was merely a
translation of Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia regumBritanniae,
preceded by a history of the Trojan War, and a second part
which carries us as far as the death of William Rufus. For this
second part he has consulted historical documents, but he stops
at the year 1087, just when he has reached the period about
which he might have been able to give us some first-hand infor-
mation. Similarly, Wace in his Roman de Rou et des dues de
Normandie (ed. Andresen, Heilbronn, 1877-1870, 2 vols.), written
1160-1174, stops at the battle of Tinchebray in 1107 just before
the period for which he would have been so useful. His Brut
or Geste des Bretons (Le Roux de Lincy, 1836-1838, 2 vols.),
written in 1 1 55, is merely a translation of Geoffrey of Monmouth.
" Wace," says Gaston Paris, speaking of the Roman de Rou,
" traduit en les abregeant des historiens latins que nous posse-
dons; mais ca. et la. il ajoute soit des contes populaires, par
exemple sur Richard I", sur Robert I", soit des particularites
qu'il savait par tradition (sur ce meme Robert le magnifique,
sur l'expedition de Guillaume, &c.) et qui donnent a. son ceuvre
un reel interet historique. Sa langue est excellente; son style
clair, serre, simple, d'ordinaire assez monotone, vous plait par sa
saveur archaique et quelquefois par une certaine grace et une
certaine malice."

The History of the Dukes of Normandy by Benolt de, Sainte-
More is based on the work of Wace. It was composed at the
request of Henry II. about 11 70, and takes us as far as the year
1 135 (ed. by Francisque Michel, 1836-1844, Collection de docu-
ments inedits, 3 vols.)'. The 43,000 lines which it contains are of
but little interest to the historian; they are too evidently the
work of a romancier courtois, who takes pleasure in recounting
love-adventures such as those he has described in his romance
of Troy. Other works, however, give us more trustworthy
information, for example, the anonymous poem on Henry II. 's
Conquest of Ireland in 1172 (ed. Francisque Michel, London, 1837),
which, together with the Expugnatio hibernica of Giraud de
Barri, constitutes our chief authority on this subject. The
Conquest of Ireland was republished in 1892 by Goddard Henry
Orpen, under the title of The Song of Dermot and the Earl (Oxford,
Clarendon Press). Similarly, Jourdain Fantosme, who was in
the north of England in n 74, wrote an account of the wars
between Henry II., his sons, William the Lion of Scotland and
Louis VII., in 1173 and 1174 (Chronicle of the reigns of Stephen
. . . III., ed. by Joseph Stevenson and Fr. Michel, London, 1886,
pp. 202-307). Not one of these histories, however, is to be com-
pared in value with The History of William the Marshal, Count of
Striguil and Pembroke, regent of England from 1216-1219, which
was found and subsequently edited by Paul Meyer (Sociitt de
Vhistoire de France, 3 vols., 1891-1901). This masterpiece of
historiography was composed in 1225 or 1226 by a professional
poet of talent at the request of William, son of the marshal. It
was compiled from the notes of the marshal's squire, John d'Early
(t 1230 or 1 231), who shared all the vicissitudes of his master's
life and was one of the executors of his will. This work is of great
value for the history of the period 11 86-1 2 19, as the informa-
tion furnished by John d'Early is either personal or obtained at
first hand. In the part which deals with the period before n 86,
it is true, there are various mistakes, due to the author's
ignorance of contemporary history, but these slight blemishes
are amply atoned for by the literary value of the work. The
style is concise, the anecdotes are well told, the descriptions
short and picturesque; the whole constitutes one of the most

living pictures of medieval society. Very pale by the side of
this work appear the Chronique of Peter of Langtoft, written
between 1311 and 1320, and mainly of interest for the period
1294-1307 (ed. by T. Wright, London, 1866-1868); the Chron-
ique of Nicholas Trevet (1258 ?-i328 ?), dedicated to Princess
Mary, daughter of Edward I. (Duff us Hardy, Descr. Catal. III.,
349-350); the Scala Chronica compiled by Thomas Gray of
Heaton (f c. 1369), which carries us to the year 1362-1363 (ed.
by J. Stevenson, Maitland Club, Edinburgh, 1836); the Black
Prince, a poem by the poet Chandos, composed about 1386, and
relating the life of the Black Prince from 1346-1376 (re-edited by
Francisque Michel, London and Paris, 1883); and, lastly, the
different versions of the Brutes, the form and historical import-
ance of which have been indicated by Paul Meyer {Bulletin de la
SociUe des Anciens Textes, 1878, pp. 104-145), and by F. W. D.
Brie (Geschichte und Quellen der mittelenglischen Prosachronik,
The Brute of England or The Chronicles of England, Marburg,
io°s)-

Finally we may mention, as ancient history, the translation of
Eutropius and Dares, by Geoffrey of Waterford (13th century),
who gave also the Secret des Secrets, a translation from a work
wrongly attributed to Aristotle, which belongs to the next
division {Rom. xxiii. 314).

Didactic Literature. — This is the most considerable, if not the
most interesting, branch of Anglo-Norman literature: it com-
prises a large number of works written chiefly with the object
of giving both religious and profane instruction to Anglo-Norman
lords and ladies. The following list gives the most important
productions arranged in chronological order :—

Philippe de Thaun, Comput, c. 11 19 (edited by E. Mall,
Strassburg, 1873), poem on the calendar; Bestiaire, c. 1130
(ed. by E. Walberg, Paris, 1900; cf. G. Paris, Rom. xxxi. 175);
Lois de Guillaume le Conquer ant (redaction between it 50 and
1 1 70, ed. by J. E. Matzke, Paris, 1899); Oxford Psalter, c. 11 50
(Fr. Michel, Libri Psalmorum versio antiqua gallica, Oxford,
i860); Cambridge Psalter, c. 11 60 (Fr. Michel, Le Livre des
Psaumes, Paris, 1877); London Psalter, same as Oxford Psalter
(cf. Beyer, Zt.f. rom. Phil. xi. 513-534; xii. 1-56); Disticha
Catonis, translated by Everard de Kirkham and Elie de Winchester
(Stengel, Ausg. u. Abhandlungen) ; Le Roman de fortune, summary
of Boetius' De consolatione philosophiae, by Simon de Fresne (Hist.
lit. xxviii. 408) ; Quatre liwes des rois, translated into French in
the 12 th century, and imitated in England soon after (P.
Schlosser, Die LautverhSltnisse der- quatre liwes des rois, Bonn,
1886; Romania, xvii. 124); Donnei des Amanz, the conversation
of two lovers, overheard and carefully noted by the poet, of a
purely didactic character, in which are included three interesting
pieces, the first being an episode of the story of Tristram, the
second a fable, L'homme et le serpent, the third a tale, L'homme
et I'oiseau, which is the basis of the celebrated Lai de I'oiselet
(Rom. xxv. 497); Livre des Sibiles (1160); Enseignements
Trebor, by Robert de Ho ( = Hoo, Kent, on the left bank of the
Medway) [edited by Mary Vance Young, Paris; Picard, 101;
cf. G. Paris, Rom. xxxii. 141]; Lapidaire de Cambridge (Pannier,
Les Lapidaires franqais) ; Frere Angier de Ste. Frideswide, Dia-
logues, 29th of November 1212 (Rom. xii. 145-208, and xxix.;
M. K. Pope, £tude sur la langue de Frere Angier, Paris, 1903);
Li dialoge Gregoire le pape, ed. by Foerster, 1876; Petit Plet, by
Chardri, c. 1216 (Koch, Altfr Bibliothek, i., and Mussafia, Z.f. r.P.
iii. 591); Petite philosophic, c. 1225 (Rom. xv. 356; xxix. 72);
Histoire de Marie et de Jisus (Rom. xvi. 248-262); Poeme sut
I'Ancien Testament (Not. et Extr. xxxiv. 1, 210; Soc. Anc.
Textes, 1889, 73-74); Le Corset and Le Miroir, by Robert de
Gretham (Rom. vii. 345; xv. 296); Lumiere as Lais, by Pierre
de Peckham, c. 1 250 (Rom. xv. 287) ; an Anglo-Norman redaction
of Image du monde, c. 1250 (Rom. xxi. 481); two Anglo-Norman
versions of Quatre sceurs (Justice, Truth, Peace, Mercy), 13th
century (ed. by Fr. Michel, Psautierd' Oxford, pp. 364-368, Bulletin
Soc. Anc. Textes, 1886, 57, Romania, xv. 352); another Comput
by Rauf de Lenham, 1256 (P. Meyer, Archives des missions,
2nd series iv. 154 and 160-164; Rom. xv. 285); Le chastel
d'amors, by Robert Grosseteste or Greathead, bishop of

ANGLO-SAXON CHRONICLE

Lincoln (J1253) [ed. by Cooke, Carmina Anglo-N ormannica,
1852, Caxton Society]; Poeme sur V amour de Dieu et sur la haine
du peche, 13th century, second part {Rom. xxix. 5); Le mariage
des neuf filles du diable (Rom. xxix. 54); Ditie d'Urbain, attri-
buted without any foundation to Henry I. (P. Meyer, Bulletin
Soc. Anc. Textes, 1880, p. 73 and Romania xxxii, 68); Dialogue
de I'eveque Saint Julien et son disciple {Rom. xxix. 21) ; Poeme sur
V antichrist et lejugement dernier, by Henri d'Arci (Rom. xxix. 78;
Not. et. Ex/r. 35, i. 137). Wilham de Waddington produced at
the end of the 13 th century his Manuel des peches, which was
adapted in England by Robert of Brunne in his Handlying Sinne
(1303) {Hist. lit. xxviii. 179-207; Rom. xxix. 5, 47-53]; see
Fumiv&ll, Robert of Brunne' s Handlying Synne (Roxb. Club, 1862) ;
in the 14th century we find Nicole Bozon's Contes moralises (see
above) ; Traite de naturesse (Rom. xiii. 508) ; Sermons in verse
(P. Meyer, op. cit. xlv.) ; Proverbes de bon enseignement (op. cit.
xlvi.). We have also a few handbooks on the teaching of
French. Gautier de Biblesworth wrote such a treatise
a Madame Dyonise de Mountechensi pur aprise de langage
(Wright, A Volume of Vocabularies; P. Meyer, Rec. d'anc. textes,
p. 360 and Romania xxxii, 22); Orthographia gallica (Stiirzinger,
Altfr. Bibl. 1884); La mani'ere de language, written in 1396
(P. Meyer, Rev. cril. d'hist. et de lilt. nos. compl. de 1870); Un
petit livre pour enseigner les enfants de leur entreparler comun
francois, c. 1399 (Stengel, Z. fur n. /. Spr. u. Litt. i. 11). The im-
portant Mirour de I'omme, by John Gower, contains about 30,000
lines written in very good French at the end of the 14th century
(Macaulay, The Complete Works of John Gower, i., Oxford, 1899).

Hagiography. — Among the numerous lives of saints written
in Anglo-Norman the most important ones are the following,
the list of which is given in chronological order: — Voyage de Saint
Brandan (or Brandain), written in 1121, by an ecclesiastic for
Queen Aelis of Louvain (Rom. St. i. 553-588; Z. f. r. P. ii. 438-
459; Rom. xviii. 203. C. Wahlund, Die altfr. Prosauberseiz.
von Brendan's Meerfahrt, Upsala, 1901); life of St Catherine by
Clemence of Barking (Rom. xiii. 400, Jarnik, 1894); life of St
Giles, c. 1 170, by Guillaume de Berneville (Soc. Anc. Textes fr.,
1 88 1 ; Rom. xi. and xxiii. 94) ; life of St Nicholas, life of Our Lady,
by Wace (Delius, 1850; Stengel, Cod. Digby, 66); Uhlemann,
Gram. Kril. Studien zu Wace's Conception und Nicolas, 1878;
life of St George by Simon de Fresne (Rom. x. 319; J. E. Matzke,
Public, of the Mod. Lang. Ass. of Amer. xvii. 1902; Rom. xxxiv.
148); Expurgatoire de Ste. Patrice, by Marie de France (Jenkins,
1894; Eckleben, Aelteste Schilderung vom Fegefeuer d. H.
Patricius, 1851; Ph. de Felice, 1906); La vie de St Edmund
le Rei, by Denis Pyramus, end of 12th century (Memorials of
St Edmund's Abbey, edited by T. Arnold, ii. 1892; Rom. xxii.
170); Henri d'Arci's life of St Thais, poem on the Antichrist,
Visio S. Pauli (P. Meyer, Not. et Exir. xxxv. 137-158); life of
St Gregory the Great by Frere Angier, 30th of April 12 14 (Rom.
viii. 509-544; ix. 176; xviii. 201); life of St Modwenna, between
1225 and 1250 (Suchier, Die dem Matthdns Paris zugeschriebene
Vie de St Auban, 1873, pp. 54-58); Fragments of a life of St
Thomas Becket, c. 1230 (P. Meyer,' Soc. Anc. Text.fr., 1885);
and another life of the same by Benoit of St Alban, 13th century
(Michel, Chron. des dues de Normandie; Hist. Lit. xxiii. 383);
a life of Edward the Confessor, written before 1245 (Luard,
Lives of Edward the Confessor, 1858; Hist. Lit. xxvii. 1), by an
anonymous monk of Westminster; life of St Auban, c. 1250
(Suchier, op. cit. ; Uhlemann, " Uber die vie de St Auban in Bezug
auf Quelle," &c. Rom. St. iv. 543-626; ed. by Atkinson, 1876).
The Vision of Tnudgal, an Anglo-Norman fragment, is preserved
in MS. 312, Trinity College, Dublin; the MS. is of the 14th
century; the author seems to belong to the 13th (La vision
de Tondale, ed. by Friedel and Kuno Meyer, 1906). In this
category we may add the life of Hugh of Lincoln, 13th century
(Hist. Lit. xxiii. 436; Child, The English and Scottish Popular
Ballads, 1888, p. v; Wolter, Bibl. Anglo-Norm^ ii. 115). Other
lives of saints were recognized to be Anglo-Norman by Paul Meyer
when examining the MSS. of the Welbeck library (Rom. xxxii.
637 and Hist. Lit. xxxiii. 338-378).

Lyric Poetry. — The only extant songs of any importance are

the seventy-one Ballads of Gower (Stengel, Gower's Minnesang,
1886). The remaining songs are mostly of a religious character.
Most of them have been discovered and published by Paul Meyer
(Bulletin de la Soc. Anc. Textes, 1889; Not. et Extr. xxxiv;
Rom. xiii. 518, t. xiv. 370; xv. p. 254, &c). Although so few
have come down to us such songs must have been numerous
at one time, owing to the constant intercourse between English,
French and Provencals of all classes. An interesting passage in
Piers Plowman furnishes us with a proof of the extent to which
these songs penetrated into England. We read of :
"... dykers and deluers that doth here dedes ille,
And dryuen forth the longe day with ' Deu, vous saue,
Dame Emme! ' " (Prologue, 223 f.)

One of the finest productions of Anglo-Norman lyric poetry
written in the end of the 13th century, is the Plainte d'amour
(Vising, Goteborg, 1905; Romania xiii. 507, xv. 292 and xxix. 4),
and we may mention, merely as literary curiosities, various
works of a lyrical character written in two languages, Latin and
French, or English and French, or even in three languages,
Latin, English and French. In Early English Lyrics (Oxford,
1907) we have a poem in which a lover sends to his mistress a
love-greeting composed in three languages, and his learned
friend replies in the same style (De amico ad amicam, Responcio,
viii and ix).

Satire. — The popularity enjoyed by the Roman de Renarl
and the Anglo-Norman version of the Riote du Monde (Z. f. rom.
Phil. viii. 275-289) in England is proof enough that the French
spirit of satire was keenly appreciated. The clergy and the fair
sex presented the most attractive target for the shots of the
satirists. However, an Englishman raised his voice in favour
of the ladies in a poem entitled La Bonte des dames (Meyer, Rom.
xv - 3 I 5"339)) and Nicole Bozon, after having represented
" Pride " as a feminine being whom he supposes to be the
daughter of Lucifer, and after having fiercely attacked the
women of his day in the Char d'Orgueil (Rom. xiii. 516), also
composed a Bounte des femmes (P. Meyer, op. cit. 33) in which
he covers them with praise, commending their courtesy, their
humility, their openness and the care with which they bring up
their children. A few pieces of political satire show us French and
English exchanging amenities on their mutual shortcomings. The
Roman des Francais, by Andre de Coutances,was written on the
continent, and cannot be quoted as Anglo-Norman although
it was composed before 1204 (cf. Gaston Paris: Trois versions
rimees de I'evangile de Nicodeme, Soc. Anc. Textes, i885),it is a
very spiritedreply to Frenchauthors who hadattacked the English.

Dramatic Literature. — This must have had a considerable
influence on the development of the sacred drama in England,
but none of the French plays acted in England in the 12 th and
13th centuries has been preserved. Adam, which is generally
considered to be an Anglo-Norman mystery of the 12th century,
was probably written in France at the beginning of the 13th
century (Romania xxxii. 637), and the so-called Anglo-Norman
Resurrection belongs also to continental French. It is necessary
to state that the earliest English moralities seem to have been
imitations of the French ones.

Bibliography. — Apart from the works already mentioned see
generally: Scheibner, " Uber die Herrschaft der frz. Sprache in
England " (Annaberg, Progr. der KSniglichen Realschule, 1880, 38 f.) ;
Groeber, Grundr. der romanischen Philologie, ii. iii. (Strassburg,
1902) ; G. Paris, La Litt. fr. au moyen age (1905) ; Esquisse historique
de la litt. fr. au moyen age (1907); La Lilt. norm, avant V annexion
912-1204 (Paris, 1899) ; " L'Esprit normand en Angleterre," La Poesie
au moyen age (2nd series 45-74, Paris, 1906) ; Thomas Wright,
Biographia britannica literaria (Anglo-Norman period, London,
1846); Ten Brink, Geschichte der englischen Lilteratur (Berlin, 1877,
i. 2) ; J. J. Jusserand, Hist. lilt, du peuple anglais (2nd ed. 1895,
vol. i.); W. H.Schofield, English Literature from the Norman Con-
quest to Chaucer (London, 1906) ; Johan Vising, Franska Spraket i
England (Goteborg, 1900, 1901, 1902). (L. Br.)

ANGLO-SAXON CHRONICLE. It is usual to speak of " the
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle "; it would be more correct to say that
there are four Anglo-Saxon Chronicles. It is true that these all
grow out of a common stock, that in some even of their later
entries two or more of them use common materials; but the same

ANGLO-SAXON LAW

may be said of several groups of medieval chronicles, which no one
dreams of treating as single chronicles. Of this fourfold Chronicle
there are seven MSS. in existence; C.C.C. Cant. 173 (A); Colt.
Tib. A vi. (B); Cott. Tib. B i. (C); Cott. Tib. B iv. (D); Bodl.
Laud. Misc. 636 (E); Cott. Domitian A viii. (F); Cott. Otho B xi.
(G). Of these G is now a mere fragment, and it is known to have
been a transcript of A. F is bilingual, the entries being given both
in Saxon and Latin. It is interesting as a stage in the transition
from the vernacular to the Latin chronicle; but it has little
independent value, being a mere epitome, made at Canterbury in
the 1 1 th or 1 2 th century, of a chronicle akin to E. B, as far as it
goes (to 1)77). is identical with C, both having been copied from a
common original, but A, C, D, E have every right to be treated as
independent chronicles. The relations between the four vary very
greatly in different parts, and the neglect of this consideration has
led to much error and confusion. The common stock, out of
which all grow, extends to 892. The present writer sees no reason
to doubt that the idea of a national, as opposed to earlier local
chronicles, was inspired by Alfred, who may even have dictated,
or at least revised, the entries relating to his own campaigns;
while for the earlier parts pre-existing materials, both oral and
written, were utilized. Among the latter the chronological
epitome appended to Bede's Ecclesiastical History may be
specially mentioned. But even this common stock exists in two
different recensions, in A, B, C, on the one hand, and D, E on the
other. The main points of difference are that in D, E (1) a series
of northern annals have been incorporated; (2) the Bede entries
are taken, not from the brief epitome, but from the main body of
the Eccl. Hist. The inference is that, shortly after the compiling
of this Alfredian chronicle, a copy of it was sent to some northern
monastery, probably Ripon, where it was expanded in the way
indicated. Copies of this northernized Chronicle afterwards found
their way to the south. The impulse given by Alfred was con-
tinued under Edward, and we have what may be called an official
continuation of the history of the Danish wars, which, in B, C, D
extends to 915, and in A to 924. After 915 B, C insert as a
separate document a short register of Mercian affairs during the
same period (902-924), which might be called the acts of ^Ethel-
flaed, the famous " Lady of the Mercians," while D has incorpor-
ated it, not very skilfully, with the official continuation. Neither
of these documents exists in E. From 925 to 97 5 all the chronicles
are very fragmentary; a few obits, three or four poems, among
them the famous ballad on the battle of Brunanburh, make up
the meagre tale of their common materials, which each has tried
to supplement in its own way. A has inserted a number of
Winchester entries, which prove that A is a Winchester book.
And this local and scrappy character it retains to 1001, where it
practically ends. At some subsequent time it was transferred
bodily to Canterbury, where it received numerous interpolations
in the earlier part, and a few later local entries which finally tail
off into the Latin acts of Lanfranc. A may therefore be dismissed.
C has added to the common stock one or two Abingdon entries,
with which place the history of C is closely connected; while D and
E have a second group of northern annals 901-966, E being how-
ever much more fragmentary than D, omitting, or not having
access to, much both of the common and of the northern material
which is found in D. From 983 to 1018 C, D and E are practically
identical, and give a connected history of the Danish struggles
under /Ethelred II. This section was probably composed at
Canterbury. From 1018 the relations of C, D, E become too
complicated to be expressed by any formula; sometimes all three
agree together, sometimes all three are independent; in other
places each pair in turn agree against the third. It may be noted
that C is strongly anti-Godwinist, while E is equallypro-Godwinist,
1) occupying an intermediate position. C extends to 1066, where
it ends abruptly, and probably mutilated. D ends at 1079 and is
certainly mutilated. In its later history D is associated with some
place in the diocese of Worcester, probably Evesham. In its
present form D is a comparatively late MS., none of it probably
much earlier, and some of it later, than 1100. In the case of
entries in the earlier part of the chronicles, which are peculiar to
D, we cannot exclude the possibility that they may be late

interpolations. E is continued to 1 1 54. In its present form it is
unquestionably a Peterborough book. The earlier part is full of
Peterborough interpolations, to which place many of the later
entries also refer. But (apart from the interpolations) it is only
the entries after 1 1 2 1 , where the first hand in the MS. ends, which
were actually composed at Peterborough. The section 1023-1067
certainly, and possibly also the section 1068-1121, was composed
at St Augustine's, Canterbury; and the former is of extreme
interest and value, the writer being in close contact with the
events which he describes. The later parts of E show a great
degeneration in language, and a querulous tone due to the
sufferings of the native population under the harsh Norman rule;
" but our debt to it is inestimable; and we can hardly measure
what the loss to English history would have been, if it had not
been written; or if, having been written, it had, like so many
another English chronicle, been lost."

Bibliography. — The above account is based on the introduction
in vol. ii. of the Rev. C. Plummer's edition of Two of the Saxon
Chronicles Parallel (Clarendon Press, 1892, 1899); to which the
student may be referred for detailed arguments. The editio princeps
of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle was by Abraham Wheloc, professor
of Arabic at Cambridge, where the work was printed (1643-1644).
It was based mainly on the MS. called G above, and is the chief
source of our knowledge of that MS. which perished, all but three
leaves, in the Cottonian lire of 1723. Edmund Gibson of Queen's
College, Oxford, afterwards bishop of London, published an edition
in 1692. He used Wheloc's edition, and E, with collations or tran-
scripts of B and F. Both Wheloc and Gibson give Latin translations.
In 1823 appeared an edition by Dr Ingram, of Trinity College,
Oxford, with an English translation. Besides A, B, E, F, Ingram
used C and D for the first time. But both he and Gibson made the
fatal error of trying to combine the disparate materials contained
in the various chronicles in a single text. An improvement in this
respect is seen in the edition made by Richard Price (d. 1833) for the
first (and only) volume of Monumenta Ilistorica Britannica (folio
1848). There is still, however, too much conflation, and owing to the
plan of the volume, the edition only extends to 1066. A translation
is appended. In 1861 appeared Benjamin Thorpe's six-text edition
in the Rolls Series. Though not free from defects, this edition is
absolutely indispensable for the study of the chronicles and the
mutual relations of the different MSS. A second volume contains
the translation. In 1865 the Clarendon Press published Two Saxon
Chronicles (A and E) Parallel, with supplementary extracts from the
others, by the Rev. John Earle. This edition has no translation,
but in the notes and introduction a very considerable advance was
made. On this edition is partly based the later edition by the
Rev. C. Plummer, already cited above. In addition to the trans-
lations contained in the editions already mentioned, the following
have been issued separately. The first translation into modern
English was by Miss Anna Gurney, privately printed in 1819. This
was largely based on Gibson's edition, and was in turn the basis of
Dr Giles' translation, published in 1847, and often reprinted. The
best translation is that by the Rev. Joseph Stevenson, in his series
of Church Historians of England (1853). Up to the Conquest it is a
revision of the translation contained in Man. Hist. Brit. From that
point it is an independent translation. (C. Pl.)

ANGLO-SAXON LAW. 1. The body of legal rules and
customs which obtained in England before the Norman conquest
constitutes, with the Scandinavian laws, the most genuine
expression of Teutonic legal thought. While the so-called
"barbaric laws" (leges barbarorum) of the continent, not except-
ing those compiled in the territory now called Germany, were
largely the product of Roman influence, the continuity of Roman
life was almost completely broken in the island, and even the
Church, the direct heir of Roman tradition, did not carry on a
continuous existence: Canterbury was not a see formed in a
Roman province in the same sense as Tours or Reims. One of
the striking expressions of this Teutonism is presented by the
language in which the Anglo-Saxon laws were written. They are
uniformly worded in English, while continental laws, apart from
the Scandinavian, are all in Latin. The English dialect in which
the Anglo-Saxon laws have been handed down to us is in most case?
a common speech derived from West Saxon — naturally enough
as Wessex became the predominant English state, and the court
of its kings the principal literary centre from which most of the
compilers and scribes derived their dialect and spelling. Traces
of Kentish speech may be detected, however, in the Textus
Roffensis, the MS. of the Kentish laws, and Northumbrian
dialectical peculiarities are also noticeable on some occasions,

ANGLO-SAXON LAW

while Danish words occur only as technical terms. At the
conquest, Latin takes the place of English in the compilations
made to meet the demand for Anglo-Saxon law texts as still
applied in practice.

2. It is easy to group the Anglo-Saxon laws according to the
manner of their publication. They would fall into three divisions :
(i) laws and collections of laws promulgated by public authority;
(2) statements of custom; (3) private compilations of legal rules
and enactments. To the first division belong the laws of the
Kentish kings, yEthelberht, Hlothhere and Eadric, Withraed;
those of Ine of Wessex, of Alfred, Edward the Elder, ^Ethelstan, 1
Edmund, Edgar, /Ethelred and Canute; the treaty between
Alfred and Guthrum and the so-called treaty between Edward
and Guthrum. The second division is formed by the convention
between the English and the Welsh Dunsaetas, the law of the
Northumbrian priests, the customs of the North people, the
fragments of local custumals entered in Domesday Book. The
third division would consist of the collections of the so-called
Pseudo-leges Canati, the laws of Edward the Confessor, of Henry I . ,
and the great compilation of the Quadripartitus, then of a number
of short notices and extracts like the fragments on the " wedding
of a wife," on oaths, on ordeals, on the king's peace, on rural
customs (Rectitudines singularum personarum) , the treatises
on the reeve (gerefa) and on the judge (dema), formulae of oaths,
notions as to wergeld, &c. A fourth group might be made of the
charters, as they are based on Old English private and public
law and supply us with most important materials in regard to it.
Looking somewhat deeper at the sources from which Old English
law was derived, we shall have to modify our classification to
some extent, as the external forms of publication, although
important from the point of view of historical criticism, are not
sufficient standards as to the juridical character of the various
kinds of material. Direct statements of law would fall under the
following heads, from the point of view of their legal origins:
i. customary rules followed by divers communities capable
of formulating law; ii. enactments of authorities, especially
of kings; iii. private arrangements made under recognized
legal rules. The first would comprise, besides most of the state-
ments of custom included in the second division according to
the first classification, a great many of the rules entered in
collections promulgated by kings; most of the paragraphs of
.Ethelberht's, Hlothhere's, and Eadric's and Ine's laws, are
popular legal customs that have received the stamp of royal
authority by their insertion in official codes. On the other hand,
from Withraed's and Alfred's laws downwards, the element of
enactment by central authority becomes more and more
prominent. The kings endeavour, with the help of secular and
clerical witan, to introduce new rules and to break the power
of long-standing customs (e.g. the precepts about the keeping
of holidays, the enactments of Edmund restricting private
vengeance, and the solidarity of kindreds as to feuds, and the
like). There are, however, no outward signs enabling us to
distinguish conclusively between both categories of laws in the
codes, nor is it possible to draw a line between permanent laws
and personal ordinances of single sovereigns, as has been
attempted in the case of Frankish legislation.

3. Even in the course of a general survey of the legal lore at
our disposal, one cannot help being struck by peculiarities in
the distribution of legal subjects. Matters which seem to us
of primary importance and occupy a wide place in our law-books
are almost entirely absent in Anglo-Saxon laws or relegated
to the background. While it is impossible to give here anything
like a complete or exact survey of the field — a task rendered
almost impossible by the arbitrary manner in which paragraphs
are divided, by the difficulty of making Old English enactments
fit into modern rubrics, and by the necessity of counting several
times certain paragraphs bearing on different subjects — a brief
statistical analysis of the contents of royal codes and laws may
be found instructive.

We find roughly 419 paragraphs devoted to criminal law and

1 The Judicia civitatis Lundoniae are a gild statute confirmed by
King /Ethelstan.

procedure as against 91 concerned with questions of private
law and civil procedure. Of the criminal law clauses, as many
as 238 are taken up with tariffs of fines, while 80 treat of capital
and corporal punishment, outlawry and confiscation, and 101
include rules of procedure. On the private law side 18 clauses
apply to rights of property and possession, 13 to succession and
family law, 37 to contracts, including marriage when treated
as an act of sale; 18 touch on civil procedure. A subject which
attracted special attention was the law of status, and no less
than 107 paragraphs contain disposition dictated by the wish
to discriminate between the classes of society. Questions of
public law and administration are discussed in 217 clauses,
while 197 concern the Church in one way or another, apart from
purely ecclesiastical collections. In the public law division it
is chiefly the power, interests and privileges of the king that
are dealt with, in roughly 93 paragraphs, while local administra-
tion comes in for 39 and purely economic and fiscal matter for
13 clauses. Police regulations are very much to the fore and
occupy no less than 72 clauses of the royal legislation. As to
church matters, the most prolific group is formed by general
precepts based on religious and moral considerations, roughly
115, while secular privileges conferred on the Church hold about
62, and questions of organization some 20 clauses.

The statistical contrasts are especially sharp and characteristic
when we take into account the chronological sequence in the
elaboration of laws. Practically the entire code of ^Ethelberht,
for instance, is a tariff of fines for crimes, and the same subject
continues to occupy a great place in the laws of Hlothhere and
Eadric, Ine and Alfred, whereas it appears only occasionally
in the treaties with the Danes, the laws of Withraed, Edward
the Elder, ^Ethelstan, Edgar, Edmund and ^Ethelred. It re-
appears in some strength in the code of Canute, but the latter
is chiefly a recapitulation of former enactments. The system
of " compositions " or fines, paid in many cases with the help
of kinsmen, finds its natural place in the ancient, tribal period
of English history and loses its vitality later on in consequence
of the growth of central power and of the scattering of maegths.
Royalty and the Church, when they acquire the lead in social
life, work out a new penal system based on outlawry, death
penalties and corporal punishments, which make their first
appearance in the legislation of Withraed and culminate in that
of /Ethelred and Canute.

As regards status, the most elaborate enactments fall into
the period preceding the Danish settlements. After the treaties
with the Danes, the tendency is to simplify distinctions on the
lines of an opposition between twelvehynd-men and twyhynd-
men, paving the way towards the feudal distinction between the
free and the unfree. In the arrangements of the commonwealth
the clauses treating of royal privileges are more or less evenly
distributed over all reigns, but the systematic development of
police functions, especially in regard to responsibility for crimes,
the catching of thieves, the suppression of lawlessness, is mainly
the object of 10th and nth century legislation. The reign ol
^Ethelred, which witnessed the greatest national humiliation
and the greatest crime in English history, is also marked by the
most lavish expressions of religious feeling and the most frequent
appeals to morality. This sketch would, of course, have to be
modified in many ways if we attempted to treat the unofficial
fragments of customary law in the same way as the paragraphs
of royal codes, and even more so if we were able to tabulate
the indirect evidence as to legal rules. But, imperfect as such
statistics may be, they give us at any rate some insight into the
direction of governmental legislation.

4. The next question to be approached concerns the pedigree
of Anglo-Saxon law and the latter's natural affinities. What is
its position in the legal history of Germanic nations? How
far has it been influenced by non-Germanic elements, especially
by Roman and Canon law? The oldest Anglo-Saxon codes,
especially the Kentish and the West Saxon ones, disclose a close
relationship to the barbaric laws of Lower Germany — those of
Saxons, Parisians, Thuringians. We find a division of social ranks
which reminds us of the threefold gradation of Lower Germany

ANGLO-SAXON LAW

(edelings, frilings, lazzen — eorls, ceorls, laets), and not of the
twofold Frankish one (ingenui Franci, Romani) , nor of the minute
differentiation of the Upper Germans and Lombards. In sub-
sequent history there is a good deal of resemblance between the
capitularies' legislation of Charlemagne and his successors on
one hand, the acts of Alfred, Edward the Elder, iEthelstan and
Edgar on the other, a resemblance called forth less by direct
borrowing of Frankish institutions than by the similarity of
political problems and condition. Frankish law becomes a
powerful modifying element in English legal history after the
Conquest, when it was introduced wholesale in royal and in feudal
courts. The Scandinavian invasions brought in many northern
legal customs, especially in the districts thickly populated with
Danes. The Domesday survey of Lincolnshire, Nottinghamshire,
Yorkshire, Norfolk, &c, shows remarkable deviations in local
organization and justice (lagmen, sokes), and great peculiarities
as to status (socmen, freemen), while from laws and a few
charters we can perceive some influence on criminal law (nidings-
vaerk), special usages as to fines (lahslit), the keeping of peace,
attestation and sureties of acts (faeslermen) , &c. But, on the
whole, the introduction of Danish and Norse elements,apart from
local cases, was more important owing to the conflicts and
compromises it called forth and its social results, than on account
of any distinct trail of Scandinavian views in English law. The
Scandinavian newcomers coalesced easily and quickly with the
native population.

The direct influence of Roman law was not great during the
Saxon period: we notice neither the transmission of important
legal doctrines, chiefly through the medium of Visigothic codes,
nor the continuous stream of Roman tradition in local usage.
But indirectly Roman law did exert a by no means insignificant
influence through the medium of the Church, which, for all its
insular character, was still permeated with Roman ideas and
forms of culture. The Old English " books " are derived in a
roundabout way from Roman models, and the tribal law of real
property was deeply modified by the introduction of individual-
istic notions as to ownership, donations, wills, rights of women,
&c. Yet in this respect also the Norman Conquest increased
the store of Roman conceptions by breaking the national isolation
of the English Church and opening the way for closer intercourse
with France and Italy.

5. It would be useless to attempt to trace in a brief sketch
the history of the legal principles embodied in the documents of
Anglo-Saxon law. But it may be of some value to give an
outline of a few particularly characteristic subjects.

(a) The Anglo-Saxon legal system cannot be understood unless
one realizes the fundamental opposition between folk-right and
privilege. Folk-right is the aggregate of rules, formulated or
latent but susceptible of formulation, which can be appealed to
as the expression of the juridical consciousness of the people at
large or of the communities of which it is composed. It is tribal
in its origin, and differentiated, not according to boundaries
between states, but on national and provincial lines. There may
be the folk-right of West and East Saxons, of East Angles, of
Kentish men, Mercians, Northumbrians, Danes, Welshmen, and
these main folk-right divisions remain even when tribal kingdoms
disappear and the people is concentrated in one or two realms.
The chief centres for the formulation and application of folk-
right were in the 10th and nth centuries the shire-moots, while
the witan of the realm generally placed themselves on the higher
ground of State expediency, although occasionally using folk-
right ideas. The older law of real property, of succession, of
contracts, the customary tariffs of fines, were mainly regulated
by folk-right; the reeves employed by the king and great men
were supposed to take care of local and rural affairs according to
folk-right. The law had to be declared and applied by the people
itself in its communities, while the spokesmen of the people were
neither democratic majorities nor individual experts, but a few
leading men — the twelve eldest thanes or some similar quorum.
Folk-right could, however, be broken or modified by special law
or special grant, and the fountain of such privileges was the
royal power. Alterations and exceptions were, as a matter of

fact, suggested by the interested parties themselves, and chiefly
by the Church. Thus a privileged land-tenure was created —
bookland; the rules as to the succession of kinsmen were set at
nought by concession of testamentary power and confirmations
of grants and wills; special exemptions from the jurisdiction of
the hundreds and special privileges as to levying fines were
conferred. In process of time the rights originating in royal
grants of privilege overbalanced, as it were, folk-right in many
respects, and became themselves the starting-point of a new
legal system — the feudal one.

(b) Another feature of vital importance in the history of
Anglo-Saxon law is its tendency towards the preservation of
peace. Society is constantly struggling to ensure the main
condition of its existence — peace. Already in ^Ethelberht's
legislation we find characteristic fines inflicted for breach of the
peace of householders of different ranks — the ceorl, the eorl,
and the king himself appearing as the most exalted among them.
Peace is considered not so much a state of equilibrium and
friendly relations between parties, but rather as the rule of a
third within a certain region- — a house, an estate, a kingdom.
This leads on one side to the recognition of private authorities
— the father's in his family, the master's as to servants, the
lord's as to his personal or territorial dependents. On the other
hand, the tendency to maintain peace naturally takes its
course towards the strongest ruler, the king, and we witness
in Anglo-Saxon law the gradual evolution of more and more
stringent and complete rules in respect of the king's peace and
its infringements.

(c) The more ancient documents of Anglo-Saxon law show us
the individual not merely as the subject and citizen of a certain
commonwealth, but also as a member of some group, all the
fellows of which are closely allied in claims and responsibilities.
The most elementary of these groups is the maegth, the associa-
tion of agnatic and cognatic relations. Personal protection and
revenge, oaths, marriage, wardship, succession, supervision over
settlement, and good behaviour, are regulated by the law of
kinship. A man's actions are considered not as exertions of his
individual will, but as acts of the kindred, and all the fellows of
the maegth are held responsible for them. What began as a
natural alliance was used later as a means of enforcing responsi-
bility and keeping lawless individuals in order. When the
association of kinsmen failed, the voluntary associations — gilds
— appeared as substitutes. The gild brothers associated in
mutual defence and support, and they had to share in the
payment of fines. The township and the hundred came also in
for certain forms of collective responsibility, because they pre-
sented groups of people associated in their economic and legal
interests.

(d) In course of time the natural associations get loosened and
intermixed, and this calls forth the elaborate police legislation
of the later Anglo-Saxon kings. Regulations are issued about
the sale of cattle in the presence of witnesses. Enactments about
the pursuit of thieves, and the calling in of warrantors to justify
sales of chattels, are other expressions of the difficulties attending
peaceful intercourse. Personal surety appears as a complement
of and substitute for collective responsibility. The hlaford and
his hiredmen are an institution not only of private patronage,
but also of police supervision for the sake of laying hands on
malefactors and suspected persons. The landrica assumes the
same part in a territorial district. Ultimately the laws of the
10th and 1 1 th centuries show the beginnings of the frankpledge
associations, which came to act so important a part in the local
police and administration of the feudal age.

The points mentioned are not many, but, apart from their
intrinsic importance in any system of law, they are, as it were,
made prominent by the documents themselves, as they are
constantly referred to in the latter.

Bibliography. — Editions: Liebermann, Die Gesetze der Angel-
sachsen (1903, 1906) is indispensable, and leaves nothing to be
desired as to the constitution of the texts. The translations and
notes are, of course, to be considered in the light of an instructive,
but not final, commentary. R. Schmid, Gesetze der Angelsachsen
(2nd ed., Leipzig, 1858) is still valuable on account of its handiness

ANGLO-SAXONS— ANGOLA

and the fulness of its glossary. B. Thorpe, Ancient Laws and
Institutes of England (1840) is not very trustworthy. Domesday
Book, i. ii. (Rec. Comm.); Codex Diplomaticus Aevi Saxonici, i.-vi.
ed. J. M. Kemble (1839-1848) ; Cartularium Saxonicum (up to 940),
ed. W. de Gray Birch (1885-1893); J. Earle, Land Charters (Oxford,
(888); Thorpe, Diplomatarium Anglicanum; Facsimiles 0} Ancient
Charters, edited by the Ordnance Survey and by the British Museum ;
Haddan and Stubbs, Councils of Great Britain, i.-iii. (Oxford, 1869-
1878).

Modem works. — Konrad Maurer, Uber Angelsachsische Rechts-
verhaltnisse , Kritische Ueberschau (Munich, 1853 ff.), still the best
account of the history of Anglo-Saxon law; Essays on Anglo-Saxon
Law, by H. Adams, H. C. Lodge, J. L. Laughlin and E. Young
(1876) ; J. M. Kemble, Saxons in England; F. Palgrave, History of the
English Commonwealth; Stubbs, Constitutional History of England,
{.; Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law, i. ; H. Brunner,
'/.ur Reclitsgeschichte der romisch-germanischen Urkunde (1880);
Sir F. Pollock, The King's Peace (Oxford Lectures); F. Seebohm;
The English Village Community; Ibid. Tribal Custom in Anglo-
Saxon Law; Marquardsen, Haft und Biirgschaft im Angelsdchsischen
Recht; Jastrow, " t'ber die Strafrechtliche Stellung der Sklaven,"
Gierke's Untersuchungen, i. ; Steenstrup, Normannerne, iv. ; F. W.
Maitland, Domesday and Beyond (Cambridge, 1897) ; H.M. Chadwick,
Studies on A.nglo-Saxon Institutions (1905); P. Vinogradoff, " Folc-
land " in the English Historical Review, 1893; " Romanistische Ein-
flijsse im Angelsachsischen Recht : Das Buchland " in the Melanges
Fitting, 1907; "The Transfer of Land in Old English Law" in
the Harvard Law Review, 1907. (P. Vi.)

ANGLO-SAXONS. The term " Anglo-Saxon " is commonly
applied to that period of English history, language and literature
which preceded the Norman Conquest. It goes back to the time
of King Alfred, who seems to have frequently used the title rex
Anglorum Saxonum or rex Angid-Saxonum. The origin of this
title is not quite clear. It is generally believed to have arisen
from the final union of the various kingdoms under Alfred in
886. Bede (Hist. Eccl. i. 15) states that the people of the more
northern kingdoms (East Anglia, Mercia, Northumbria, &c.)
belonged to the Angli, while those of Essex, Sussex and Wessex
were sprung from the Saxons {q.v.), and those of Kent and
southern Hampshire from the Jutes (q.v.). Other early writers,
however, do not observe these distinctions, and neither in
language nor in custom do we find evidence of any appreciable
differences between the two former groups, though in custom
Kent presents most -remarkable contrasts with the other king-
doms. Still more curious is the fact that West Saxon writers
regularly speak of their own nation as a part of the Angelcyn
and of their language as Englisc, while the West Saxon royal
family claimed to be of the same stock as that of Bernicia. On
the other hand, it is by no means impossible that the distinction
drawn by Bede was based solely on the names Essex (East
Seaxan), East Anglia, &c. We need not doubt that the Angli
and the Saxons were different nations originally; but from the
evidence at our disposal it seems likely that they had practically
coalesced in very early times, perhaps even before the invasion.
At all events the term Angli Saxones seems to have first come
into use on the continent, where we find it, nearly a century
before Alfred's time, in the writings of Paulus Diaconus (Paul
the Deacon). There can be little doubt, however, that there it
was used to distinguish the Teutonic inhabitants of Britain from
the Old Saxons of the continent.

See W. H. Stevenson, Asser's Life of King Alfred (Oxford, 1904,
pp. 148 ff.) ; H. Munro Chadwick, The Origin of the English Nation
(Cambridge, 1907); also Britain, Anglo-Saxon. (H. M. C.)

ANGOLA, the general name of the Portuguese possessions on
the west coast of Africa south of the equator. With the exception
of the enclave of Kabinda (q.v.) the province lies wholly south of
the river Congo. Bounded on the W. by the Atlantic Ocean, it
extends along the coast from the southern bank of the Congo
(6° S., 12 E.) to the mouth of the Kuncne river (17° 18' S.,
11° 50' E.). The coast-line is some 900 m. long. On the north
the Congo forms for 80 m. the boundary separating Angola from
the Congo Free State. The frontier thence (in 5° 52' S.) goes due
east to the Kwango river. The eastern boundary — dividing the
Portuguese possessions from the Congo State and Barotseland
(N.W. Rhodesia) — is a highly irregular line. On the south
Angola borders German South- West Africa, the frontier being
drawn somewhat S. of the 17th degree of S. latitude. The area

of the province is about 480,000 sq. m. The population is
estimated (1906) at 4,119,000.

The name Angola (a Portuguese corruption of the Bantu word
Ngola) is sometimes confined to the 105 m. of coast, with its
hinterland, between the mouths of the rivers Dande and Kwanza,
forming the central portion of the Portuguese dominions in West
Africa; in a looser manner Angola is used to designate all the
western coast of Africa south of the Congo in the possession of
Portugal; but the name is now officially applied to the whole of
the province. Angola is divided into five districts: four on the
coast, the fifth, Lunda, wholly inland, being the N.E. part of the
province. Lunda is part of the old Bantu kingdom of Muata
Yanvo, divided by international agreement between Portugal
and the Congo Free State.

The coast divisions of Angola are Congo on the N. (from the
river Congo to the river Loje), corresponding roughly with the
limits of the " kingdom of Congo " (see History below); Loanda,
which includes Angola in the most restricted sense mentioned
above; Benguella and Mossamedes to the south. Mossamedes
is again divided into two portions — the coast region and the
hinterland, known as Huilla.

Physical Features. — The coast is for the most part flat, with
occasional low cliffs and bluffs of red sandstone. There is but
one deep inlet of the sea — Great Fish Bay (or Bahia dos Tigres),
a little north of the Portuguese- German frontier. Farther north
are Port Alexander, Little Fish Bay and Lobito Bay, while
shallower bays are numerous. Lobito Bay has water sufficient
to allow large ships to unload close inshore. The coast plain
extends inland for a distance varying from 30 to 100 m. This
region is in general sparsely watered and somewhat sterile. The
approach to the great central plateau of Africa is marked by a
series of irregidar terraces. This intermediate mountain belt is
covered with luxuriant vegetation. Water is fairly abundant,
though in the dry season obtainable only by digging in the sandy
beds of the rivers. The plateau has an altitude ranging from
4000 to 6000 ft. It consists of well-watered, wide, rolling plains,
and low hills with scanty vegetation. In the east the tableland
falls away to the basins of the Congo and Zambezi, to the south
it merges into a barren sandy desert. A large number of rivers
make their way westward to the sea; they rise, mostly, in the
mountain belt, and are unimportant, the only two of any size
being the Kwanza and the Kunene, separately noticed. The
mountain chains which form the edge of the plateau, or diversify
its surface, run generally parallel to the coast, as Tala Mugongo
(4400 ft.), Chella and Vissecua (5250 ft. to 6500 ft.). In the
district of Benguella are the highest points of the province, viz.
Loviti (7780 ft.), in 1 2° 5' S., and Mt. Elonga (7550 ft.). South of
the Kwanza is the volcanic mountain Caculo-Cabaza (3300 ft.).
From the tableland the Kwango and many other streams flow
north to join the Kasai (one of the largest affluents of the Congo),
which in its upper course forms for fully 300 m. the boundary
between Angola and the Congo State. In the south-east part of
the province the rivers belong either to the Zambezi system, or,
like the Okavango, drain to Lake Ngami.

Geology. — The rock formations of Angola are met with in three
distinct regions: (1) the littoral zone, (2) the median zone formed
by a series of hills more or less parallel with the coast, (3) the
central plateau. The central plateau consists of ancient crystal-
line rocks with granites overlain by unfossiliferous sandstones
and conglomerates considered to be of Palaeozoic age. The
outcrops are largely hidden under laterite. The median zone is
composed largely of crystalline rocks with granites and some
Palaeozoic unfossiliferous rocks. The littoral zone contains the
only fossiliferous strata. These are of Tertiary and Cretaceous
ages, the latter rocks resting on a reddish sandstone of older date.
The Cretaceous rocks of the Dombe Grande region (near Ben-
guella) are of Albian age and belong to the A canthoceras mamillari
zone. The beds containing Schloenbachia inflata are referable to
the Gault. Rocks of Tertiary age aremet with at Dombe Grande,
Mossamedes and near Loanda. The sandstones with gypsum,
copper and sulphur of Dombe are doubtfully considered to be of
Triassic age. Recent eruptive rocks, mainly basalts, form a line

ANGOLA

of hills almost bare of vegetation between Benguella and Mossa-
medes. Nepheline basalts and liparites occur at Dombe Grande.
The presence of gum copal in considerable quantities in the
superficial rocks is characteristic of certain regions.

Climate. — With the exception of the district of Mossamedes,
the coast plains are unsuited to Europeans. In the interior,
above 3300 ft., the temperature and rainfall, together with
malaria, decrease. The plateau climate is healthy and invigor-
ating. The mean annual temperature at Sao Salvador do Congo
is 72-5° F.; at Loanda, 74-3°; and at Caconda, 67-2°. The
climate is greatly influenced by the prevailing winds, which arc
W., S.W. and S.S.W. Two seasons are distinguished — the cool,
from June to September; and the rainy, from October to May.
The heaviest rainfall occurs in April, and is accompanied by
violent storms.

Flora and Fauna. — Both flora and fauna are those character-
istic of the greater part of tropical Africa. As far south as
Benguella the coast region is rich in oil-palms and mangroves.
In the northern part of the province are dense forests. In the
south towards the Kunene are regions of dense thorn scrub.
Rubber vines and trees are abundant, but in some districts
their number has been considerably reduced by the ruthless
methods adopted by native collectors of rubber. The species
most common are various root rubbers, notably the Carpodinus
chylorrhiza. This species and other varieties of carpodinus are
very widely distributed. Landolphias are also found. The
coffee, cotton and Guinea pepper plants are indigenous, and the
tobacco plant flourishes in several districts. Among the trees
are several which yield excellent timber, such as the tacula
(Pterocarpus tinctorius), which grows to an immense size, its
wood being blood-red in colour, and the Angola mahogany.
The bark of the musuemba {Albizzia coriaria) is largely used in
the tanning of leather. The mulundo bears a fruit about the
size of a cricket ball covered with a hard green shell and con-
taining scarlet pips like a pomegranate. The fauna includes
the lion, leopard, cheetah, elephant, giraffe, rhinoceros, hippo-
potamus, buffalo, zebra, kudu and many other kinds of antelope,
wild pig, ostrich and crocodile. Among fish are the barbel,
bream and African yellow fish.

Inhabitants. — The great majority of the inhabitants are of
Bantu-Negro stock with some admixture in the Congo district
with the pure negro type. In the south-east are various tribes
of Bushmen. The best-known of the Bantu-Negro tribes are
the Ba-Kongo (Ba-Fiot), who dwell chiefly in the north, and
the Abunda (Mbunda, Ba-Bundo), who occupy the central part
of the province, which takes its name from the Ngola tribe of
Abunda. Another of these tribes, the Bangala, living on the
west bank of the upper Kwango, must not be confounded with
the Bangala of the middle Congo. In the Abunda is a consider-
able strain of Portuguese blood. The Ba-Lunda inhabit the
Lunda district. Along the upper Kunene and in other districts
of the plateau are settlements of Boers, the Boer population
being about 2000. In the coast towns the majority of the white
inhabitants are Portuguese. The Mushi-Kongo and other divi-
sions of the Ba-Kongo retain curious traces of the Christianity
professed by them in the 16th and 17th centuries and possibly
later. Crucifixes are used as potent fetish charms or as symbols
of power passing down from chief to chief; whilst every native
has a " Santu " or Christian name and is dubbed dom or dona.
Fetishism is the prevailing religion throughout the province.
The dwelling-places of the natives are usually small huts of the
simplest constuction, used chiefly as sleeping apartments;
the day is spent in an open space in front of the hut protected
from the sun by a roof of palm or other leaves.

Chief Towns. — The chief towns are Sao Paulo de Loanda,
the capital, Kabinda, Benguella and Mossamedes {q.v.). Lobito,
a little north of Benguella, is a town which dates from 1905 and
owes its existence to the bay of the same name having been
chosen as the sea terminus of a railway to the far interior. Noki
is on the southern bank of the Congo at the head of navigation
from the sea, and close to the Congo Free State frontier. It
is available for ships of large tonnage, and through it passes

the Portuguese portion of the trade of the lower Congo. Ambriz
— the only seaport of consequence in the Congo district of the
province — is at the mouth of the Loje river, about 70 m. N. of
Loanda. Novo Redondo and Egito are small ports between
Loanda and Benguella. Port Alexander is in the district of
Mossamedes and S. of the town of that name.

In the interior Humpata, about 95 m. from Mossamedes,
is the chief centre of the Boer settlers; otherwise there are none
but native towns containing from 1000 to 3000 inhabitants
and often enclosed by a ring of sycamore trees. Ambaca and
Malanje are the chief places in the fertile agricultural district
of the middle Kwanza, S.E. of Loanda, with which they are in
railway communication. Sao Salvador (pop. 1500) is the name
given by the Portuguese to Bonza Congo, the chief town of the
'• kingdom of Congo." It stands 1840 ft. above sea-level and
is about 160 m. inland and 100 S.E. of the river port of Noki,
in 6° 15' S. Of the cathedral and other stone buildings erected
in the 16th century, there exist but scanty ruins. The city walls
were destroyed in the closing years of the 19th century and the
stone used to build government offices. There is a fort, built
about 1850, and a small military force is at the disposal of the
Portuguese resident. Bembe and Encoje are smaller towns in
the Congo district south of Sao Salvador. Bihe, the capital of
the plateau district of the same name forming the hinterland of
Benguella, is a large caravan centre. Kangomba, the residence
of the king of Bihe, is a large town. Caconda is in the hill
country S.E. of Benguella.

Agriculture and Trade. — Angola is rich in both agricultural
and mineral resources. Amongst the cultivated products are
mealies and manioc, the sugar-cane and cotton, coffee and tobacco
plants. The chief exports are coffee, rubber, wax, palm kernels
and palm-oil, cattle and hides and dried or salt fish. Gold dust,
cotton, ivory and gum are also exported. The chief imports are
food-stuffs, cotton and woollen goods and hardware. Consider-
able quantities of coal come from South Wales. Oxen, intro-
duced from Europe and from South Africa, flourish. There are
sugar factories, where rum is also distilled and a few other
manufactures, but the prosperity of the province depends on
the " jungle " products obtained through the natives and from
the plantations owned by Portuguese and worked by indentured
labour, the labourers being generally " recruited " from the far
interior. The trade of the province, which had grown from
about £800,000 in 1870 to about £3,000,000 in 1905, is largely
with Portugal and in Portuguese bottoms. Between 1893 and
1904 the percentage of Portuguese as compared with foreign
goods entering the province increased from 43 to 201 %, a result
due to the preferential duties in force.

The minerals found include thick beds of copper at Bembe,
and deposits on the M'Brije and the Cuvo and in various places
in the southern part of the province; iron at Ociras (on the
Lucalla affluent of the Kwanza) and in Bailundo; petroleum
and asphalt in Dande and Quinzao; gold in Lombije and
Cassinga; and mineral salt in Quissama. The native black-
smiths are held in great repute.

Communications. — There is a regular steamship communication
between Portugal, England and Germany, and Loanda, which
port is within sixteen days' steam of Lisbon. There is also a
regular service between Cape Town, Lobito and Lisbon and
Southampton. The Portuguese line is subsidized by the govern-
ment. The railway from Loanda to Ambaca and Malanje is
known as the Royal Trans-African railway. It is of metre
gauge, was begun in 1887 and is some 300 m. long. It was in-
tended to carry the line across the continent to Mozambique,
but when the line reached Ambaca (225 m.) in 1894 that scheme
was abandoned. The railway had created a record in being the
most expensive built in tropical Africa — £8942 per mile. A
railway from Lobito Bay, 25 m. N. of Benguella, begun in 1904,
runs towards the Congo-Rhodesia frontier. It is of standard
African gauge (3 ft. 6 in.) and is worked by an English company.
It is intended to serve the Katanga copper mines. Besides
these two main railways, there are other short lines linking
the seaports to their hinterland. Apart from the railways.

ANGORA

communication is by ancient caravan routes and by ox-wagon
tracks in the southern district. Riding-oxen are also used. The
province is well supplied with telegraphic communication and is
connected with Europe by submarine cables.

Government and Revenue. — The administration of the province
is carried on under a governor-general, resident at Loanda, who
acts under the direction of the ministry of the colonies at Lisbon.
At the head of each district is a local governor. Legislative
powers, save those delegated to the governor-general, are
exercised by the home government. Revenue is raised chiefly
from customs, excise duties and direct taxation. The revenue
(in 1904-1905 about £350,000) is generally insufficient to meet
expenditure (in 1904-1905 over £490,000) — the balance being
met by a grant from the mother country. Part of the extra
expenditure is, however, on railways and other reproductive
works.

History. — The Portuguese established themselves on the west
coast of Africa towards the close of the 1 5th century. The river
Congo was discovered by Diogo Cam or Cao in 1482. He erected
a stone pillar at the mouth of the river, which accordingly took
the title of Rio de Padrao, and established friendly relations
with the natives, who reported that the country was subject to
a great monarch, Mwani Congo or lord of Congo, resident at
Bonza Congo. The Portuguese were not long in making them-
selves influential in the country. Gongalo de Sousa was
despatched on a formal embassy in 1490; and the first mis-
sionaries entered the country in his train. The king was soon
afterwards baptized and Christianity was nominally established
as the national religion. In 1534 a cathedral was founded at
Bonza Congo (renamed Sao Salvador), and in 1560 the Jesuits
arrived with Paulo Diaz de Novaes. Of the prosperity of the
country the Portuguese have left the most glowing and indeed
incredible accounts. It was, however, about this time ravaged
by cannibal invaders (Bangala) from the interior, and Portuguese
influence gradually declined. The attention of the Portuguese
was, moreover, now turned more particularly to the southern
districts of Angola. In 1627 the bishop's seat was removed to
Sao Paulo de Loanda and Sao Salvador declined in importance.
In the 18th century, in spite of hindrances from Holland and
France, steps were taken towards re-establishing Portuguese
authority in the northern regions; in 1758 a settlement was
formed at Encoje; from 1784 to 1789 the Portuguese carried
on a war against the natives of Mussolo (the district immediately
south of Ambriz); in 1791 they built a fort at Quincollo on the
Loje, and for a time they worked the mines of Bembe. Until,
however, the " scramble for Africa" began in 1884, they possessed
no fort or settlement on the coast to the north of Ambriz, which
was first occupied in 1855. At Sao Salvador, however, the
Portuguese continued to exercise influence. The last of the
native princes who had real authority was a potentate known
as Dom Pedro V. He was placed on the throne in 1855 with the
help of a Portuguese force, and reigned over thirty years. In
1888 a Portuguese resident was stationed at Salvador, and the
kings of Congo became pensioners of the government.

Angola proper, and the whole coast-line of what now con-
stitutes the province of that name, was discovered by Diogo Cam
during 1482 and the three following years. The first governor
sent to Angola was Paulo Diaz, a grandson of Bartholomew Diaz,
who reduced to submission the region south of the Kwanza nearly
as far as Benguella. The city of Loanda was founded in 1576,
Benguella in 1617. From that date the sovereignty of Portugal
over the coast-line, from its present southern limit as far north
as Ambriz (7 50' S.) has been undisputed save between 1640
and 1648, during which time the Dutch attempted to expel the
Portuguese and held possession of the ports. Whilst the economic
development of the country was not entirely neglected and many
useful food products were introduced, the prosperity of the
province was very largely dependent on the slave trade with
Brazil, which was not legally abolished until 1830 and in fact
continued for many years subsequently.

In 1884 Great Britain, which up to that time had steadily
refused to acknowledge that Portugal possessed territorial rights

north of Ambriz, concluded a treaty recognizing Portuguese
sovereignty over both banks of the lower Congo; but the treaty,
meeting with opposition in England and Germany, was not
ratified. Agreements concluded with the Congo Free State,
Germany and France in 1885-1886 (modified in details by
subsequent arrangements) fixed the limits of the province, except
in the S.E., where the frontier between Barotseland (N.W.
Rhodesia) and Angola was determined by an Anglo-Portuguesa
agreement of 1891 and the arbitration award of the king of Italy
in 1 905 (see Africa : History) . Up to the end of the 1 9th century
the hold of Portugal over the interior of the province was slight,
though its influence extended to the Congo and Zambezi basins.
The abolition of the external slave trade proved very injurious
to the trade of the seaports, but from i860 onward the agricultural
resources of the country were developed with increasing energy,
a work in which Brazilian merchants took the lead. After the
definite partition of Africa among the European powers, Portugal
applied herself with some seriousness to exploit Angola and her
other African possessions. Nevertheless, in comparison with its
natural wealth the development of the country has been slow.
Slavery and the slave trade continued to flourish in the interior
in the early years of the 20th century, despite the prohibitions of
the Portuguese government. The extension of authority over
the inland tribes proceeded very slowly and was not accomplished
without occasional reverses. Thus in September 1904 a Portu-
guese column lost over 300 men killed, including 1 14 Europeans,
in an encounter with the Kunahamas on the Kunene, not far from
the German frontier. The Kunahamas are a wild, raiding tribe
and were probably largely influenced by the revolt of their
southern neighbours, the Hereros, against the Germans. In 1905
and again in 1907 there was renewed fighting in the same region.
Authorities. — E. de Vasconcellos, As Colonias Portuguesas
(Lisbon, 1896-1897); J. J. Monteiro, Angola and the River Congo
(2 vols. London, 1875) ; Viscount de Paiva Manso, Historia do Congo
.... (Documentos) (Lisbon, 1877); A Report of the Kingdom of
Congo (London, 1881), an English translation, with notes by Mar-
garite Hutchinson, of Filippo Pigafetta's Relatione del Reame di
Congo (Rome, 1591), a book founded on the statements and writings
of Duarte Lopez; Rev. Thos. Lewis, "The Ancient Kingdom of
Kongo " in Geographical Journal, vol. xix. and vol. xxxi. (London,
1902 and 1908); The Strange Adventures of Andrew Battell of Leigh
in Angola and the Adjoining Regions (London, 1901), a volume of
the Hakluyt Society, edited by E. G. Ravenstein, who gives in
appendices the history of the country from its discovery to the end
of the 17th century; J. C. Feo Cardozo, Memorias contendo .... a
historia dos governadores e capitaens generaes de Angola, desde i£75
ate 1825 (Paris, 1825); H. W. Nevinson, A Modern Slavery (London,
1906), an examination of the system of indentured labour and its
recruitment; Ornithologie d' Angola, by J. V. Barboza du Bocage
(Lisbon, 1881); " Geologie des Colonies portugaises en Afrique,"
by P. Choffat, in Com. d. service geol. du Portugal. See also the annual
reports on the Trade of Angola, issued by the British Foreign Office.

ANGORA, or Enguri. (i) A city of Turkey (anc. Ancyra) in
Asia, capital of the vilayet of the same name, situated upon a steep,
rocky hill, which rises 500 ft. above the plain, on the left bank of
the Enguri Su, a tributary of the Sakaria(Sangarius), about 220 m.
E.S.E. of Constantinople. The hill is crowned by the ruins of
the old citadel, which add to the picturesqueness of the view; but
the town is not well built, its streets being narrow and many of its
houses constructed of sun-dried mud bricks; there are, however,
many fine remains of Graeco- Roman and Byzantine architecture,
the most remarkable being the temple of Rome and Augustus, on
the walls of which is the famous Monumentum Ancyranum (see
Ancyra). Ancyra was the centre of the Tectosages, one of the
three Gaulish tribes which settled in Galatia in the 3rd century
B.C., and became the capital of the Roman province of Galatia
when it was formally constituted in 25 B.C. During the Byzan-
tine period, throughout which it occupied a position of great
importance, it was captured by Persians and Arabs; then it fell
into the hands of the Seljuk Turks, was held for eighteen years by
the Latin Crusaders, and finally passed to the Ottoman Turks in
1360. In 1402 a great battle was fought in the vicinity of Angora,
in which the Turkish sultan Bayezid was defeated and made
prisoner by the Tatar conqueror Timur. In 141 5 it was recovered
by the Turks under Mahommed L, and since that period has

ANGOULEME

belonged to the Ottoman empire. In 1832 it was taken by the
Egyptians under Ibrahim Pasha. Angora is connected with
Constantinople by railway, and exports wool, mohair, grain and
yellow berries. Mohair cloth is manufactured, and the town is
noted for its honey and fruit. From 1639 to 1768 there was an
agency of the Levant Company here; there is now a British
consul. Pop. estimated at 28,000 (Moslems, 18,000; Christians,
largely Roman Catholic Armenians, about 9400; Jews, 400).

(2) A Turkish vilayet in north-central Asia Minor, which
includes most of the ancient Galatia. It is an agricultural
country, depending for its prosperity on its grain, wool (average
annual export, 4,400,000 lb), and the mohair obtained from the
beautiful Angora goats (average annual clip, 3,300,000 lt>). The
fineness of the hair may perhaps be ascribed to some peculiarity
in the atmosphere, for it is remarkable that the cats, dogs and
other animals of the country are to a certain extent affected in
the same way, and that they all lose much of their distinctive
beauty when taken from their native districts. The only im-
portant industry is carpet-weaving at Kir-sheher and Kaisarieh.
There are mines of silver, copper, lignite and salt, and many hot
springs, including some of great repute medicinally. Average
annual exports 1896-1898, £920,762; imports, £411,836. Pop.
about 900,000 (Moslems, 765,000 to 800,000, the rest being
Christians, with a few hundred Jews). (J. G. C. A.)

See C. Ritter, Erdkunde von Asien (vol. xviii., 1837-1839); V.
Cuinet, La Turquie d'Asie, t. i. (1891); Murray's Handbook to Asia
Minor (1895) ; and other works mentioned under Ancyra.

ANGOULEME, CHARLES DE VALOIS, Duke of (1573-1650),
the natural son of Charles IX. of France and Marie Touchet, was
born on the 28th of April 1573, at the castle of FayetinDauphine.
His father dying in the following year, commended him to the
care and favour of his brother and successor, Henry III., who
faithfully fulfilled the charge. His mother married Francois de
Balzac, marquis d'Entragues, and one of her daughters, Henriette,
marchioness of Verneuil, afterwards became the mistress of
Henry IV. Charles of Valois, was carefully educated, and was
destined for the order of Malta. At the early age of sixteen he
attained one of the highest dignities of the order, being made
grand prior of France. Shortly after he came into possession of
large estates left by Catherine de' Medici, from one of which he
took his title of count of Auvergne. In 1591 he obtained a
dispensation from the vows of the order of Malta, and married
Charlotte, daughter of Henry, Marshal d'Amville, afterwards
duke of Montmorency. In 1 589 Henry III. was assassinated, but
on his deathbed he commended Charles to the good-will of his
successor Henry IV. By that monarch he was made colonel of
horse, and in that capacity served in the campaigns during the
early part of the reign. But the connexion between the king and
the marchioness of Verneuil appears to have been very displeasing
to Auvergne, and in 1601 he engaged in the conspiracy formed by
the dukes of Savoy, Biron and Bouillon, one of the objects of
which was to force Henry to repudiate his wife and marry
the marchioness. The conspiracy was discovered; Biron and
Auvergne were arrested and Biron was executed. Auvergne
after a few months' imprisonment was released, chiefly through
the influence of his half-sister, his aunt, the duchess of Angouleme
and his father-in-law. He then entered into fresh intrigues with
the court of Spain, acting in concert with the marchioness of
Verneuil and her father d'Entragues. In 1604 d'Entragues and
he were arrested and condemned to death; at the same time the
marchioness was condemned to perpetual imprisonment in a
convent. She easily obtained pardon, and the sentence of death
against the other two was commuted into perpetual imprisonment.
Auvergne remained in the Bastille for eleven years, from 1605 to
1616. A decree of the parlement (1606), obtained by Marguerite
de Valois, deprived him of nearly all his possessions, including
Auvergne, though he still retained the title. In 1616 he was
released, was restored to his rank of colonel-general of horse, and
despatched against one of the disaffected nobles, the duke of
Longueville, who had taken Peronne. Next year he commanded
the forces collected in the lie de France, and obtained some
successes. In 1619 he received by bequest, ratified in 1620 by

royal grant, the duchy of Angouleme. Soon after he was engaged
on an important embassy to Germany, the result of which was the
treaty of Ulm, signed July 1620. In 1627 he commanded the large
forces assembled at the siege of La Rochelle; and some years after
in 1635, during the Thirty Years' War, he was general of the
French army in Lorraine. In 1636 he was made lieutenant-
general of the army. He appears to have retired from public life
shortly after the death of Richelieu in 1643. His first wife died
in 1636, and in 1644 he married Francoise de Narbonne, daughter
of Charles, baron of Mareuil. She had no children and survived
her husband until 1713. Angouleme himself died on the 24th oi
September 1650. By his first wife he had three children: Henri,
who became insane; Louis Emmanuel, who succeeded his father
as duke of Angouleme and was colonel-general of light cavalry
and governor of Provence; and Francois, who died in 1622.

The duke was the author of the following works: — (i)Memoires,
from the assassination of Henri III. to the battle of Arques (1589-
J 593)i published at Paris by Boneau, and reprinted by Buchon in his
Choix de chroniques (1836) and by Petitot in his Memoir es (1st series,
vol. xliv.) ; (2) Les Harangues, prononces en assemblee de MM. les
princes protestants d' Allemagne, par Monseigneur le due d' Angoultme
(1620); (3) a translation of a Spanish work by Diego de Torres.
To him has also been ascribed the work, La generate et fideh Relation
de tout ce qui s'est passe en I' isle de Re, envoyee par le roi d, la royne
sa mere (Paris, 1627).

ANGOULEME, a city of south-western France, capital of
the department of Charente, 83 m. N.N.E. of Bordeaux on the
railway between Bordeaux and Poitiers. . Pop. (1906) 30,040.
The town proper occupies an elevated promontory, washed on
the north by the Charente and on the south and west by the
Anguienne, a small tributary of that river. The more important
of the suburbs lie towards the east, where the promontory joins
the main plateau, of which it forms the north-western extremity.
The main line of the Orleans railway passes through a tunnel
beneath the town. In place of its ancient fortifications Angou-
leme is encircled by boulevards known as the Remparts, from
which fine views may be obtained in all directions. Within the
town the streets are often dark and narrow, and, apart from the
cathedral and the hotel de ville, the architecture is of little
interest. The cathedral of St Pierre (see Cathedkal), a church
in the Byzantine-Romanesque style, dates from the nth and
12 th centuries, but has undergone frequent restoration, and was
partly rebuilt in the latter half of the 19th century by the
architect Paul Abadie. The facade, flanked by two towers with
cupolas, is decorated with arcades filled in with statuary and
sculpture, the whole representing the Last Judgment. The
crossing is surmounted by a dome, and the extremity of the
north transept by a fine square tower over 160 ft. high. The
hotel de ville, also by Abadie, is a handsome modern structure,
but preserves two towers of the chateau of the counts of Angou-
leme, on the site of which it is built. It contains museums of
paintings and archaeology. Angouleme is the seat of a bishop,
a prefect, and a court of assizes. Its public institutions include
tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a council of trade-
arbitrators, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank
of France. It also has a lycee, training-colleges, a school of
artillery, a library and several learned societies. It is a centre
of the paper-making industry, with which the town has been
connected since the 14th century. Most of the mills are situated
on the banks of the watercourses in the neighbourhood of the
town. The subsidiary industries, such as the manufacture of
machinery and wire fabric, are of considerable importance.
Iron and copper founding, brewing, tanning, and the manufacture
of gunpowder, confectionery, heavy iron goods, gloves, boots
and shoes and cotton goods are also carried on. Commerce is
carried on in wine, brandy and building-stone.

Angouleme (Iculisma) was taken by Clovis from the Visigoths
in 507, and plundered by the Normans in the 9th century. In
1360 it was surrendered by the peace of Bretigny to the English;
they were, however, expelled in 1373 by the troops of Charles V.,
who granted the town numerous privileges. It suffered much
during the Wars of Religion, especially in 1 568 after its capture
by the Protestants under Coligny.

ANGOUMOIS— ANGUILLA

The countship of Angouleme dated from the 9th century, the
most important of the early counts being William Taillefer,
whose descendants held the title till the end of the 12th century.
Withdrawn from them on more than one occasion by Richard
Coeur-de-Lion, it passed to King John of England on his marriage
with Isabel, daughter of Count Adhemar, and by her subsequent
marriage in 1220 to Hugh X. passed to the Lusignan family,
counts of Marche. On the death of Hugh XIII. in 1302 without
issue, his possessions passed to the crown. In 1394 the countship
came to the house of Orleans, a member of which, Francis I.,
became king of France in 151 5 and raised it to the rank of duchy
in favour of his mother Louise of Savoy. The duchy afterwards
changed hands several times, one of its holders being Charles of
Yalois, natural son of Charles IX. The last duke was Louis-
Antoine, eldest son of Charles X., who died in 1844.

See A. F. Lievre, Angouleme: histoire, institutions et monuments
(Angouleme, 1885).

ANGOUMOIS, an old province of France, nearly corre-
sponding to-day to the department of Charente. Its capitr.l
was Angouleme.

See Essai d'une bibliotkeque historique de VAngoumois, by E.
Castaigne (1845).

ANGRA, or Angra do Heroismo ("Bay -of Heroism," a
name given it in 1829, to commemorate its successful defence
against the Miguelist party), the former capital of the Portuguese
archipelago of the Azores, and chief town of an administrative
district, comprising the islands of Terceira. St George and
Graciosa. Pop. (1900) 10,788. Angra is built on the south
coast of Terceira in 38° 38' N. and in 27° 13' W. It is the
headquarters of a military command, and the residence of a
Roman Catholic bishop; its principal buildings are the cathedral,
military college, arsenal and observatory. The harbour, now of
little commercial or strategic importance, but formerly a cele-
brated naval station, is sheltered on the west and south-west by
the promontory of Mt. Brazil; but it is inferior to the neighbour-
ing ports of Ponta Delgada and Horta. The foreign trade is net
large, and consists chiefly in the exportation of pineapples and
other fruit. Angra served as a refuge for Queen Maria II. cf
Portugal from 1830 to 1833.

ANGRA PEQUENA, a bay in German South-West Africa, in
26° 38' S., 1 5 E., discovered by Bartholomew Diaz in 1487.
F. A. E. Luderitz, of Bremen, established a trading station here
in 1883, and his agent concluded treaties with the neighbouring
chiefs, who ceded large tracts of country to the newcomers.
On the 24th of April 1884 Luderitz transferred his rights to the
German imperial government, and on the following 7th of
August a German protectorate over the district was proclaimed.
(See Africa, § 5, and German South-West Africa. ) Angra
Pequena has been renamed by the Germans Luderitz Bay, and
the adjacent country is sometimes called Liideritzland. The
harbour is poor. At the head of the bay is a small town, whence
a railway, begun in 1906, runs east in the direction of Bechuana-
land. The surrounding country for many miles is absolute
desert, except after rare but terrible thunderstorms, when the
dry bed of the Little Fish river is suddenly filled with a turbulent
stream, the water finding its way into the bay.

The islands off the coast of Angra Pequena, together with
others north and south, were annexed to Great Britain in 1867
and added to Cape Colony in 1874. Seal Island and Penguin
Island are in the bay; Ichaboe, Mercury, and Hollam's Bird
islands are to the north; Halifax, Long, Possession, Albatross,
Pomona, Plumpudding, and Roastbeef islands are to the south.
On these islands are guano deposits; the most valuable is on
Ichaboe Island.

ANGSTROM, ANDERS JONAS (1814-1874), Swedish physicist,
was born on the 13th of August 1814 at Logdo, Medelpad,
Sweden. He was educated at Upsala University, where in
1839 he became prival doccnt in physics. In 1842 he went to
Stockholm Observatory in order to gain experience in practical
astronomical work, and in the following year he became observer
at Upsala Observatory. Becoming interested in terrestrial
magnetism he made many observations of magnetic intensity

and declination in various parts of Sweden, and was charged by
the Stockholm Academy of Sciences with the task, not completed
till shortly before his death, of working out the magnetic data
obtained by the Swedish frigate " Eugenie " on her voyage
round the world in 1851-1853. In 1858 he succeeded Adolph
Ferdinand Svanberg (1806-1857) in the chair of physics at
Upsala, and there he died on the 21st of June 1874. His most
important work was concerned with the conduction of heat and
with spectroscopy. In his optical researches, Optiska Undersok-
ningar, presented to the Stockholm Academy in 1853, he not
only pointed out that the electric spark yields two superposed
spectra, one from the metal of the electrode and the other from
the gas in which it passes, but deduced from Euler's theory of
resonance that an incandescent gas emits luminous rays of the
same refrangibility as those which it can absorb. This statement,
as Sir E. Sabine remarked when awarding him the Rumford
medal of the Royal Society in 1872, contains a fundamental
principle of spectrum analysis, and though for a number of years
it was overlooked it entitles him to rank as one of the founders
of spectroscopy. From 1861 onwards he paid special attention
to the solar spectrum. He announced the existence of hydrogen,
among other elements, in the sun's atmosphere in 1862, and in
1868 published his great map of the normal solar spectrum
which long remained authoritative in questions of wave-length,
although his measurements were inexact to the extent of one
part in 7000 or 8000 owing to the metre which he used as his
standard having been slightly too short. He was the first, iii
1867, to examine the spectrum of the aurora borealis, and
detected and measured the characteristic bright line in its yellow
green region; but he was mistaken in supposing that this same
line, which is often called by his name, is also to be seen in the
zodiacal light.

His son, Knut Joiian Angstrom, was born at Upsala on the
12th of January 1857, and studied at the university of that town
from 1877 to 1884. After spending a short time in Strassburg he
was appointed lecturer in physics at Stockholm University in
1885, but in 1891 returned to Upsala, where in 1896 he became
professor of physics. He especially devoted himself to investiga-
tions of the radiation of heat from the sun and its absorption by
the earth's atmosphere, and to that end devised various delicate
methods and instruments, including his electric compensation
pyrheliometer, invented in 1893, and apparatus for obtaining a
photographic representation of the infra-red spectrum (1895).

ANGUIER, FRANCOIS (c. 1604-1669), and MICHEL (1612-
1686), French sculptors, were two brothers, natives of Eu in
Normandy. Their apprenticeship was served in the studio of
Simon Guillain. The chief works of Francois are the monument
to Cardinal de Berulle, founder of the Carmelite order, in/ the
chapel of the oratory at Paris, of which all but the bust has been
destroyed, and the mausoleum of Henri II., last due de Mont-
morency, at Moulins. To Michel are due the sculptures of the
triumphal arch at the Porte St Denis, begun in 1674, to serve
as a memorial for the conquests of Louis XIV. A marble group
of the Nativity in the church of Val de Grace was reckoned
his masterpiece. From 1662 to 1667 he directed the progress of
the sculpture and decoration in this church, and it was he who
superintended the decoration of the apartments of Anne of
Austria in the old Louvre. F. Fouquet also employed him for his
chateau in Vaux.

See Henri Stein, Les freres Anguier (1889), with catalogue of works,
and many references to original sources; Armand Sanson, Deux
sculpteurs Normands: les freres Anguier (1889).

ANGUILLA, or Snake, a small island in the British Indies,
part of the presidency of St Kitts-Nevis, in the colony of the
Leeward Islands. Pop. (1901) 3890, mostly negroes. It is
situated in 18° 12' N. and 63° s'"w., about 60 m. N.W. of St
Kitts, is 16 m. long and has an area of 35 sq.m. The destruction
of trees by charcoal-burners has resulted in the almost complete
deforestation of the island. Nearly all the land is in the hands of
peasant proprietors, who cultivate sweet potatoes, peas, beans,
corn, &c, and rear sheep and goats. Cattle, phosphate of lime and
salt, manufactured from a lake in the interior, are the principal

ANGULATE— ANGUS

exports, the market for these being the neighbouring island of
St Thomas.

ANGULATE (Lat. angulus, an angle), shaped with corners or
angles; an adjective used in botany and zoology for the shape
of stems, leaves and wings.

ANGUS, EARLS OF. Angus was one of the seven original
earldoms of the Pictish kingdom of Scotland, said to have been
occupied by seven brothers of whom Angus was the eldest. The
Celtic line ended with Matilda (fl. 1240), countess of Angus in
her own right, who married in 1243 Gilbert de Umfravill and
founded the Norman line of three earls, which ended in 1381, the
then holder of the title being summoned to the English parlia-
ment. Meanwhile John Stewart of Bonkyl, co. Berwick, had been
created earl of Angus in a new line. This third creation ended
with Margaret Stewart, countess of Angus in her own right, and
widow of Thomas, 13 th earl of Mar. By an irregular connexion
with William, 1st earl of Douglas, who had married Mar's sister,
she became the mother of George Douglas, 1st earl of Angus
(c. 1380-1403), and secured a charter of her estates for her son,
to whom in 1389 the title was granted by King Robert II. He
was taken prisoner at Homildon Hill and died in England. The
5th earl was his great-grandson.

Archibald Douglas, 5th earl of Angus (c. 1450-c. 1514),
the famous " Bell the-Cat," was born about 1450 and succeeded
his father, George the 4th earl, in 1462 or 1463. In 1481 he was
made warden of the east marches, but the next year he joined the
league against James III. and his favourite Robert Cochrane
at Lauder, where he earned his nickname by offering to bell the
cat, i.e. to deal with the latter, beginning the attack upon him
by pulling his gold chain off his neck and causing him with others
of the king's favourites to be hanged. Subsequently he joined
Alexander Stewart, duke of Albany, in league with Edward IV.
of England, on the 1 ith of February 1483, signing the convention
at Westminster which acknowledged the overlordship of the
English king. In March however they returned, outwardly at
least, to their allegiance, and received pardons for their treason.
Later Angus was one of the leaders in the rebellion against
James in 1487 and 1488, which ended in the latter's death. He
was made one of the guardians of the young king James IV. but
soon lost influence, being superseded by the Homes and Hepburns,
and the wardenship of the marches was given to Alexander Home.
Though outwardly on good terms with James, he treacherously
made a treaty with Henry VII. about 1489 or 1491, by which he
undertook to govern his relations with James according to
instructions from England, and to hand over Hermitage Castle,
commanding the pass through Liddesdale into Scotland, on the
condition of receiving English estates in compensation. In
October 1491 he fortified his castle of Tantallon against James,
but was obliged to submit and exchange his Liddesdale estate
and Hermitage Castle for the lordship of Both well. In 1493
he was again in favour, received various grants of lands, and
was made chancellor, which office he retained till 1498. In 1501
he was once more in disgrace and confined to Dumbarton
Castle. After the disaster at Flodden in 15 13, at which he was
not present, but at which he lost his two eldest sons, Angus was
appointed one of the counsellors of the queen regent. He died
at the close of this year, or in 15 14. He was married three times,
and by his first wife had four sons and several daughters. His
third son, Gavin Douglas, bishop of Dunkeld, is separately
noticed.

Archibald Douglas, the 6th earl (c. 1489-1557), son of
George, master of Douglas, who was killed at Flodden, succeeded
on his grandfather's death. In 1509 he had married Margaret
(d. 1513), daughter of Patrick Hepburn, 1st earl of Bothwell;
and in 1514 he married the queen dowager Margaret of Scotland,
widow of James IV., and eldest sister of Henry VIII. By this
latter act he stirred up the jealousy of the nobles and the opposi-
tion of the French party, and civil war broke out. He was
superseded in the government on the arrival of John Stewart,
duke of Albany, who was made regent. Angus withdrew to his
estates in Forfarshire, while Albany besieged the queen at
Stirling and got possession of the royal children; then he joined

Margaret after her flight at Morpeth, and on her departure for
London returned and made his peace with Albany in 1516.
He met her once more at Berwick in June 151 7, when Margaret
returned to Scotland on Albany's departure in vain hopes of
regaining the regency. Meanwhile, during Margaret's absence,
Angus had formed a connexion with a daughter of the laird of
Traquair. Margaret avenged his neglect of her by refusing to
support his claims for power and by secretly trying through
Albany to get a divorce. In Edinburgh Angus held his own
against the attempts of James Hamilton, ist^earl of Arran, to
dislodge him. But the return of Albany in 1521, with whom
Margaret now sided against her husband, deprived him of power.
The regent took the government into his own hands; Angus was
charged with high treason in December, and in March 1522 was
sent practically a prisoner to France, whence he succeeded in
escaping to London in 1524. He returned to Scotland in
November with promises of support from Henry VIII., with
whom he made a close alliance. Margaret, however, refused to
have anything to do with her husband. On the 23rd, therefore,
Angus forced his way into Edinburgh, but was fired upon by
Margaret and retreated to Tantallon. He now organized a large
party of nobles against Margaret with the support of Henry VIII.,
and in February 1525 they entered Edinburgh and called a
parliament. Angus was made a lord of the articles, was included
in the council of regency, bore the king's crown on the opening
of the session, and with Archbishop Beaton held the chief power.
In March he was appointed lieutenant of the marches, and
suppressed the disorder and anarchy on the border. In July
the guardianship of the king was entrusted to him for a fixed
period till the 1st of November, but he refused at its close to
retire, and advancing to Linlithgow put to flight Margaret and
his opponents. He now with his followers engrossed all the
power, succeeded in gaining over some of his antagonists, includ-
ing Arran and the Hamiltons, and filled the public offices with
Douglases, he himself becoming chancellor. " None that time
durst strive against a Douglas nor Douglas's man." 1 The young
king James, now fourteen, was far from content under the
tutelage of Angus, but he was closely guarded, and several
attempts to effect his liberation were prevented, Angus com-
pletely defeating Lennox, who had advanced towards Edinburgh
with 10,000 men in August, and subsequently taking Stirling.
His successes were consummated by a pacification with Beaton,
and in 1527 and 1528 he was busy in restoring order through the
country. In the latter year, on the nth of March, Margaret
succeeded in obtaining her divorce from Angus, and about the
end of the month she and her lover, Henry Stewart, were
besieged at Stirling. A few weeks later, however, James suc-
ceeded in escaping from Angus's custody, took refuge with
Margaret and Arran at Stirling, and immediately proscribed
Angus and all the Douglases, forbidding them to come within
seven miles of his person. Angus, having fortified himself in
Tantallon, was attainted and his lands confiscated. Repeated
attempts of James to subdue the fortress failed, and on one
occasion Angus captured the royal artillery, but at length it
was given up as a condition of the truce between England
and Scotland, and in May 1529 Angus took refuge with Henry,
obtained a pension and took an oath of allegiance, Henry
engaging to make his restoration a condition of peace. Angus
had been chiefly guided in his intrigues with England by his
brother, Sir George Douglas of Pittendriech (d. 1552), master of
Angus, a far cleverer diplomatist than himself. His life and
lands were also declared forfeit, as were those of his uncle,
Archibald Douglas of Kilspindie (d. 1535), who had been a friend
of James and was known by the nickname of " Greysteel."
These took refuge in exile. James avenged himself on such
Douglases as lay within his power. Angus's third sister Janet,
Lady Glamis, was summoned to answer the charge of com-
municating with her brothers, and on her failure to appear her
estates were forfeited. In 1537 she was tried for conspiring
against the king's life. She was found guilty and burnt on the
Castle Hill, Edinburgh, on the 17th of July 1537. Her innocence
1 Lindsay of Pitscottie (1814), ii. 314.

ANGUSSOLA— ANHALT

has been generally assumed, but Tytler (Hist, of Scotland, iv.
pp. 433 , 434) considered her guilty. Angus remained in England
till 1542, joining in the attacks upon his countrymen on the
border, while James refused all demands from Henry VIII. for
his restoration, and kept firm to his policy of suppressing and
extirpating the Douglas faction. On James V.'s death in 1542
Angus returned to Scotland, with instructions from Henry to
accomplish the marriage between Mary and Edward. His
forfeiture was rescinded, his estates restored, and he was made
a privy councillor and lieutenant-general. In 1543 he negotiated
the treaty of peace and marriage, and the same year he himself
married Margaret, daughter of Robert, Lord Maxwell. Shortly
afterwards strife between Angus and the regent Arran broke out,
and in April 1544 Angus was taken prisoner. The same year
Lord Hertford's marauding expedition, which did not spare the
lands of Angus, made him join the anti-English party. He
entered into a bond with Arran and others to maintain their
allegiance to Mary, and gave his support to the mission sent to
France to offer the latter's hand. In July 1544 he was appointed
lieutenant of the south of Scotland, and distinguished himself
on the 27th of February 1545 in the victory over the English at
Ancrum Moor. He still corresponded with Henry VIII., but
nevertheless signed in 1546 the act cancelling the marriage and
peace treaty, and on the 10th of September commanded the van
in the great defeat of Pinkie, when he again won fame. In 1548
the attempt by Lennox and Wharton to capture him and punish
him for his duplicity failed, Angus escaping after his defeat to
Edinburgh by sea, and Wharton being driven back to Carlisle.
Under the regency of Mary of Lorraine his restless and ambitious
character and the number of his retainers gave cause for frequent
alarms to the government. On the 31st of August 1547 he
resigned his earldom, obtaining a regrant sibi et suis haeredibus
masculis et suis assignalis quibuscumque. His career was a long
struggle for power and for the interests of his family, to which
national considerations were completely subordinate. He died
in January 1557. By Margaret Tudor he had Margaret, his only
surviving legitimate child, who married Matthew, 4th earl of
Lennox, and was mother of Lord Darnley. He was succeeded
by bis nephew David, son of Sir George Douglas of Pittendriech.
Archibald Douglas, 8th earl, and earl of Morton (1555-
1588), was the son of David, 7 th earl. He succeeded to the title
and estates in 1558, being brought up by his uncle, the 4th earl
of Morton, a Presbyterian. In 1573 he was made a privy
councillor and sheriff of Berwick, in 1574 lieutenant-general
of Scotland, in 1577 warden of the west marches and steward
of Fife, and in 1578 lieutenant-general of the realm. He gave
a strong support to Morton during the attack upon the latter,
made a vain attempt to rescue him, and was declared guilty of
high treason on the 2nd of June 1581. He now entered into
correspondence with the English government for an invasion of
Scotland to rescue Morton, and on the latter's execution in June
went to London, where he was welcomed by Elizabeth. After
the raid of Ruthven in 1582 Angus returned to Scotland and was
reconciled to James, but soon afterwards the king shook off the
control of the earls of Mar and Cowrie, and Angus was again
banished from the court. In 1584 he joined the rebellion of
Mar and Glamis, but the movement failed, and the insur-
gents fled to Berwick. Later they took up their residence at
Newcastle, which became a centre of Presbyterianism and of
projects against the Scottish government, encouraged by
Elizabeth, who regarded the banished lords as friends of the
English and antagonists of the French interest. In February
1585 they came to London, and cleared themselves of the accusa-
tion of plotting against James's life; a plan was prepared for
their restoration and for the overthrow of James Stewart, earl
of Arran. In October they invaded Scotland and gained an
easy victory over Arran, captured Stirling Castle with the king
in November, and secured from James the restoration of their
estates and the control of the government. In 1586 Angus was
appointed warden of the marches and lieutenant-general on the
border, and performed good services in restoring order; but he
was unable to overcome the king's hostility to the establishment

of Presbyterian^ government. In January 1586 he was granted
the earldom of Morton with the lands entailed upon him by his
uncle. He died on the 4th of August 1 588. He was succeeded in
the earldom by his cousin William, a descendant of the 5 th earl.
(For the Morton title, see Morton, James Douglas, 4thEARL or.)
William Douglas, 10th earl (c. 1554-1611), was the son of
William, the 9th earl (1533-1591). He studied at St Andrews
University and joined the household of the earl of Morton.
Subsequently, while visiting the French court, he became a
Roman Catholic, and was in consequence, on his return, dis-
inherited and placed under restraint. Nevertheless he succeeded
to his father's titles and estates in 1591, and though in 1592
he was disgraced for his complicity in Lord Bothwell's plot,
he was soon liberated and performed useful services as the king's
lieutenant in the north of Scotland. In July 1592, however,
he was asking for help from Elizabeth in a plot with Erroll and
other lords against Sir John Maitland, the chancellor, and
protesting his absolute rejection of Spanish offers, while in
October he signed the Spanish Blanks (see Erroll, Francis
Hay, 9th Earl or) and was imprisoned (on the discovery of the
treason) in Edinburgh Castle on his return in January 1593.
He succeeded on the 13th in escaping by the help of his countess,
joining the earls of Huntly and Erroll in the north. They were
offered an act of "oblivion" or "abolition" provided they
renounced their religion or quitted Scotland. Declining these
conditions they were declared traitors and " forfeited." They
remained in rebellion, and in July 1594 an attack made by them
on Aberdeen roused James's anger. Huntly and Erroll were
subdued by James himself in the north, and Angus failed in an
attempt upon Edinburgh in concert with the earl of Bothwell.
Subsequently in 1597 they all renounced their religion, declared
themselves Presbyterians, and were restored to their estates
and honours. Angus was again included in the privy council,
and in June 1598 was appointed the king's lieutenant in southern
Scotland, in which capacity he showed great zeal and conducted
the " Raid of Dumfries," as the campaign against the Johnstones
was called. Not long afterwards, Angus, offended at the advance-
ment of Huntly to a'marquisate, recanted, resisted all the argu-
ments of the ministers to bring him to a " better mind," and
was again excommunicated in 1608. In 1609 he withdrew to
France, and died in Paris on the 3rd of March 1611. He was
succeeded by his son William, as nth earl of Angus, afterwards
1 st marquis of Douglas (1580-1660). The title is now held by the
dukes of Hamilton.

Authorities. — The Douglas Booh, by Sir W. Fraser (1885);
History of the House of Douglas and Angus, by D. Hume of Godscroft
(1748, legendary in some respects) ; History of the House of Douglas,
by Sir H. Maxwell (1902).

ANGUSSOLA or Angussciola, SOPHONISBA, Italian portrait
painter of the latter half of the 16th century, was born at Cremona
about 1535, and died at Palermo in 1626. In 1560, at the
invitation of Philip II., she visited the court of Madrid, where
her portraits elicited great commendation. Vandyck is said
to have declared that he had derived more knowledge of the true
principles of his art from her conversation than from any other
source. She painted several fine portraits of herself, one of which
is at Althorp. A few specimens of her painting are to be seen
at Florence and Madrid. She had three sisters, who were also
celebrated artists.

ANHALT, a duchy of Germany, and a constituent state of
the German empire, formed, in 1863, by the amalgamation of
the two duchies Anhalt-Dessau-Cbthen and Anhalt-Bernburg,
and comprising all the various Anhalt territories which were
sundered apart in 1603. The country now known as Anhalt
consists of two larger portions — Eastern and Western Anhalt,
separated by the interposition of a part of Prussian Saxony —
and of five enclaves surrounded by Prussian territory, viz.
Alsleben, Muhlingen,Dornburg,GMnitz and Tilkerode-Abberode.
The eastern and larger portion of the duchy is enclosed by the
Prussian government district of Potsdam (in the Prussian
province of Brandenburg), and Magdeburg and Merseburg
(belonging to the Prussian province of Saxony). The western

ANHALT

or smaller portion (the so-called Upper Duchy or Ballenstedt)
is also enclosed by the two latter districts and, for a distance
of 5 m. on the west, by the duchy of Brunswick. The western
portion of the territory is undulating and in the extreme south-
west, where it forms part of the Harz range, mountainous, the
Ramberg peak attaining a height of 1900 ft. From the Harz
the country gently shelves down to the Saale; and between this
river and the Elbe there lies a fine tract of fertile country. The
portion of the duchy lying east of the Elbe is mostly a fiat
sandy plain, with extensive pine forests, though interspersed, at
intervals, by bog-land and rich pastures. The Elbe is the chief
river, and intersecting the eastern portion of the duchy, from
east to west, receives at Rosslau the waters of the Mulde. The
navigable Saale takes a northerly direction through the western
portion of the eastern part of the territory and receives, on
the right, the Fuhne and, on the left, the Wipper and the Bode.
The climate is on the whole mild, though somewhat inclement
in the higher regions to the south-west. The area of the duchy is
906 sq. m., and the population in 1905 amounted to 328,007,
a ratio of about 351 to the square mile. The country is
divided into the districts of Dessau, Cothen, Zerbst, Bernburg
and Ballenstedt, of which that of Bernburg is the most, and
that of Ballenstedt the least, populated. Of the towns, four,
viz. Dessau, Bernburg, Cothen and Zerbst, have populations
exceeding 20,000. The inhabitants of the duchy, who mainly
belong to the upper Saxon race, are, with the exception of about
12,000 Roman Catholics and 1700 Jews, members of the Evan-
gelical (Union) Church. The supreme ecclesiastical authority
is the consistory in Dessau; while a synod of 39 members,
elected for six years, assembles at periods to deliberate on
internal matters touching the organization of the church. The
Roman Catholics are under the bishop of Paderborn. There
are within the duchy four grammar schools (gymnasia), five
semi-classical and modern schools, a teachers' seminary and
four high-grade girls' schools. Of the whole surface, land under
tillage amounts to about 60, meadowland to 7 and forest
to 25%. The chief crops are corn (especially wheat), fruit,
vegetables, potatoes, beet, tobacco, flax, linseed and hops.
The land is well cultivated, and the husbandry on the royal
domains and the large estates especially so. The pastures on
the banks of the Elbe yield cattle of excellent quality. The
forests are well stocked with game, such as deer and wild boar,
and the open country is well supplied with partridges. The rivers
yield abundant fish, salmon (in the Elbe), sturgeon and lampreys.
The country is rich in lignite, and salt works are abundant.
Of the manufactures of Anhalt, the chief are its sugar factories,
distilleries, breweries and chemical works. Commerce is brisk,
especially in raw products — corn, cattle, timber or wool. Coal
(lignite), guano, oil and bricks are also articles of export. The
trade of the country is furthered by its excellent roads, its navig-
able rivers and its railways (165 m.), which are worked in con-
nexion with the Frussian system. There is a chamber of
commerce in Dessau.

Constitution. — The duchy, by virtue of a fundamental law,
proclaimed on the 17th of September 1859 and subsequently
modified by various decrees, is a constitutional monarchy. The
duke, who bears the title of " Highness," wields the executive
power while sharing the legislation with the estates. The diet
(Landtag) is composed of thirty-six members, of whom two are
appointed by the duke, eight are representatives of landowners
paying the highest taxes, two of the highest assessed members
of the commercial and manufacturing classes, fourteen of the
other electors of the towns and ten of the rural districts. The
representatives are chosen for six years by indirect vote and
must have completed their twenty-fifth year. The duke governs
through a minister of state, who is the praeses of all the depart-
ments — finance, home affairs, education, public worship and
statistics. The budget estimates for the financial year 1905-
1906 placed the expenditure of the estate at £1,323,437. The
public debt amounted on the 30th of June 1904 to £226,300.
By convention with Prussia of 1867 the Anhalt troops form a
contingent of the Prussian army. Appeal from the lower

courts of the duchy lies to the appeal court at Naumburg in
Prussian Saxony.

History. — During the nth century the greater part of Anhalt
was included in the duchy of Saxony, and in the 12 th century
it came under the rule of Albert the Bear, margrave of Branden-
burg. Albert was descended from Albert, count of Ballenstedt,
whose son Esico (d. 1059 or 1060) appears to have been the first
to bear the title of count of Anhalt. Esico's grandson, Otto the
Rich, count of Ballenstedt, was the father of Albert the Bear,
by whom Anhalt was united with the mark of Brandenburg.
When Albert died in n 70, his son Bernard, who received the
title of duke of Saxony in 1 1 80, became count of Anhalt. Bernard
died in 121 2, and Anhalt, separated from Saxony, passed to his
son Henry, who in 1218 took the title of prince and was the real
founder of the house of Anhalt. On Henry's death in 1252 his
three sons partitioned the principality and founded respectively
the lines of Aschersleben, Bernburg and Zerbst. The family
ruling in Aschersleben became extinct in 1315, and this district
was subsequently incorporated with the neighbouring bishopric of
Halberstadt. The last prince of the line of Anhalt-Bernburg died
in 1468 and his lands were inherited by the princes of the sole
remaining line, that of Anhalt-Zerbst. The territory belonging
to this branch of the family had been divided in 1396, and after
the acquisition of Bernburg Prince George I. made a further
partition of Zerbst. Early in the 16th century, however, owing
to the death or abdication of several princes, the family had
become narrowed down to the two branches of Anhalt-Cothen
and Anhalt-Dessau. Wolfgang, who became prince of Anhalt-
Cothen in 1508, was a stalwart adherent of the Reformation,
and after the battle of Muhlberg in 1547 was placed under the
ban and deprived of his lands by the emperor Charles V. After
the peace of Passau in 1552 he bought back his principality,
but as he was childless he surrendered it in 1562 to his kinsmen
the princes of Anhalt-Dessau. Ernest I. of Anhalt-Dessau
(d. 1516) left three sons, John II., George III., and Joachim,
who ruled their lands together for many years, and who, like
Prince Wolfgang, favoured the reformed doctrines, which thus
became dominant in Anhalt. About 1546 the three brothers
divided their principality and founded the lines of Zerbst,
Plotzkau and Dessau. This division, however, was only
temporary, as the acquisition of Cothen, and a series of deaths
among theVuling princes, enabled Joachim Ernest, a son of John
II., to unite the whole of Anhalt under his rule in 1570.

Joachim Ernest died in 1586 and his five sons ruled the land
in common until 1603, when Anhalt was again divided, and the
lines of Dessau, Bernburg, Plotzkau, Zerbst and Cothen were
refounded. The principality was ravaged during the Thirty
Years' War, and in the earlier part of this struggle Christian I.
of Anhalt-Bernburg took an important part. In 1635 an
arrangement was made by the various princes of Anhalt, which
gave a certain authority to the eldest member of the family,
who was thus able to represent the principality as a whole. This
proceeding was probably due to the necessity of maintaining
an appearance of unity in view of the disturbed state of European
politics. In 1665 the branch of Anhalt-Cothen became extinct,
and according to a family compact this district was inherited by
Lebrecht of Anhalt-Plotzkau, who surrendered Plotzkau to Bern-
burg,and took the title of prince of Anhalt- Cothen. In the same year
the princes of Anhalt decided that if any branch of the family
became extinct its lands should be equally divided between the
remaining branches. This arrangement was carried out after the
death of Frederick Augustus of Anhalt-Zerbst in 1793, and Zerbst
was divided between the three remaining princes. During these
years the policy of the different princes was marked, perhaps
intentionally, by considerable uniformity. Once or twice
Calvinism was favoured by a prince, but in general the house was
loyal to the doctrines of Luther. The growth of Prussia provided
Anhalt with a formidable neighbour, and the establishment
and practice of primogeniture by all branches of the family
prevented further divisions of the principality. In 1806 Alexius
of Anhalt-Bernburg was created a duke by the emperor Francis II.,
and after the dissolution of the Empire each of the three princes

4 6

ANHALT-DESSAU

took this title. Joining the Confederation of the Rhine in 1807,
they supported Napoleon until 1813, when they transferred their
allegiance to the allies; in 181 5 they became members of the
Germanic Confederation, and in 1828 joined, somewhat reluct-
antly, the Prussian Zollverein.

Anhalt-Cothen was ruled without division by a succession of
princes, prominent among whom was Louis (d. 1650), who was
both a soldier and a scholar; and after the death of Prince
Charles at the battle of Semlin in 1789 it passed to his son
Augustus II. This prince sought to emulate the changes which
had recently been made in France by dividing Cothen into two
departments and introducing the Code Napoleon. Owing to his
extravagance he left a large amount of debt to his nephew and
successor, Louis II., and on this account the control of the
finances was transferred from the prince to the estates. Under
Louis's successor Ferdinand, who was a Roman Catholic and
brought the Jesuits into Anhalt, the state of the finances grew
worse and led to the interference of the king of Prussia and to
the appointment of a Prussian official. When the succeeding
prince, Henry, died in 1847, this family became extinct, and
according to an arrangement between the lines of Anhalt-Dessau
and Anhalt-Bernburg, Cothen was added to Dessau.

Anhalt-Bernburg had been weakened by partitions, but its
princes had added several districts to their lands; and in 181 2,
on the extinction of a cadet branch, it was again united under a
single ruler. The feeble rule of Alexander Charles, who became
duke in 1834, and the disturbed state of Europe in the following
decade, led to considerable unrest, and in 1849 Bernburg was
occupied by Prussian troops. A number of abortive attempts
were made to change the government, and as Alexander Charles
was unlikely to leave any children, Leopold of Anhalt-Dessau
took some part in the affairs of Bernburg. Eventually in 1859
a new constitution was established for Bernburg and Dessau
jointly, and when Alexander Charles died in 1863 both were
united under the rule of Leopold.

Anhalt-Dessau had been divided in 1632, but was quickly
reunited; and in 1693 it came under the rule of Leopold I.
(see Anhalt-Dessau, Leopold I., Prince of), the famous soldier
who was generally known as the " Old Dessauer." The sons of
Leopold's eldest son were excluded from the succession on account
of the marriage of their father being morganatic, and the princi-
pality passed in 1747 to his second son, Leopold II. The unrest
of 1848 spread to Dessau, and led to the interference of the
Prussians and to the establishment of the new constitution in
1859. Leopold IV., who reigned from 1817 to 1871, had the
satisfaction in 1863 of reuniting the whole of Anhalt under his
rule. He took the title of duke of Anhalt, summoned one
Landtag for the whole of the duchy, and in 1866 fought for
Prussia against Austria. Subsequently a quarrel over the posses-
sion of the ducal estates between the duke and the Landtag
broke the peace of the duchy, but this was settled in 1872. In
1 87 1 Anhalt became a state of the German Empire. Leopold IV.
was followed by his son Frederick I., and on the death of this
prince in 1904 his son Frederick II. became duke of Anhalt.

Authorities. — F. Knoke, Anhaltische Geschichte (Dessau, 1893);
G. Krause, Urkunden, Aktenstilcke und Brief e zur Geschichte
der anhaltischen Lande und ihrer Fiirsten unter dem Drucke des
30 jahrigen Krieges (Leipzig, 1861-1866); O. von Heinemann, Codex
diplomaticus Anhaltinus (Dessau, 1867-1883); Siebigk, Das Her-
zogthum Anhalt historisch, geographisch und statistisch dargestellt
(Dessau, 1867).

ANHALT-DESSAU, LEOPOLD I., Prince of (1676-1747),
called the "Old Dessauer" (Alter Dessauer), general field marshal
in the Prussian army, was the only surviving son of John George
II., prince of Anhalt-Dessau, and was born on the 3rd of July 1676
at Dessau. From his earliest youth he was devoted to the pro-
fession of arms, for which he educated himself physically and
mentally. .He became colonel of a Prussian regiment in 1693, and
in the same year his father's death placed him at the head of his
own principality; thereafter, during the whole of his long life, he
performed the duties of a sovereign prince and a Prussian officer.
His first campaign was that of 1695 in the Netherlands, in which
he was present at the siege of Namur. He remained in the field

to the end of the war of 1697, the affairs of the principality being
managed chiefly by his mother, Princess Henriette Catherine of
Orange. In 1698 he married Anna Luise Fose, an apothecary's
daughter of Dessau, in spite of his mother's long and earnest
opposition, and subsequently he procured for her the rank of a
princess from the emperor (1701). Their married life was long
and happy, and the princess acquired an influence over the stern
nature of her husband which she never ceased to exert on behalf
of his subjects, and after the death of Leopold's mother she
performed the duties of regent when he was absent on campaign.
Often, too, she accompanied him into the field. Leopold's career
as a soldier in important commands begins with the outbreak of
the War of the Spanish Succession. He had made many improve-
ments in the Prussian army, notably the introduction of the iron
ramrod about 1700, and he now took the field at the head of a
Prussian corps on the Rhine, serving at the sieges of Kaiserswerth
and Venlo. In the following year (1 703) , having obtained the rank
of lieutenant-general, Leopold took part in the siegeof Bonnand dis-
tinguished himself very greatly in the battle of Hochstadt, in which
the Austrians and their allies were defeated by the French under
Marshal Villars (September 20, 1 703). In the campaign of 1 704 the
Prussian contingent served under Prince Louis of Baden and sub-
sequently under Eugene, and Leopold himself won great glory by
his conduct at Blenheim. In 1703 he was sent with a Prussian
corps to join Prince Eugene in Italy, and on the 16th of August
he displayed his bravery at the hard-fought battle of Cassano.
In the following year he added to his reputation in the battle of
Turin, where he was the first to enter the hostile entrenchments
(September 7, 1706). He served in one more campaign in Italy,
and then wen t with Eugene to join Marlborough in the Netherlands,
being present in 1709 at the siege of Tournay and the battle of
Malplaquet. In 17 10 he succeeded to the command of the whole
Prussian contingent at the front, and in 171 2, at the particular
desire of the crown prince, Frederick William, who had served
with him as a volunteer, he was made a general field marshal.
Shortly before this he had executed a coup de main on the castle
of Mors, which was held by the Dutch in defiance of the claims of
the king of Prussia to the possession. The operation was effected
with absolute precision and the castle was seized without a shot
being fired. In the earlier part of the reign of Frederick William
I., the prince of Dessau was one of the most influential members
of the Prussian governing circle. In the war with Sweden (17 15)
he accompanied the king to the front, commanded an army of
40,000 men, and met and defeated Charles XII. in a severe battle
on the island of Riigen (November 16). His conduct of the siege of
Stralsund which followed was equally skilf ul,and the great results
of the war to Prussia were largely to be attributed to his leader-
ship in the campaign. In the years of peace, and especially after
a court quarrel (1725) and duel with General von Grumbkow, he
devoted himself to the training of the Prussian army. The reputa-
tion it had gained in the wars of 1675 to 1715, though good, gave
no hint of its coming glory, and it was even in 1740 accounted one
of the minor armies of Europe. That it proved, when put to the
test, to be by far the best military force existing, may be taken
as the summary result of Leopold's work. The "Old Dessauer "
was one of the sternest disciplinarians in an age of stern discipline,
and the technical training of the infantry, under his hand, made
them superior to all others in the proportion of five to three (see
Austrian Succession, War of the). He was essentially an
infantry soldier; in his time artillery did not decide battles, but
he suffered the cavalry service, in which he felt little interest, to
be comparatively neglected, with results which appeared at
Mollwitz. Frederick the Great formed the cavalry of Hohenfried-
berg and Leuthen himself, but had it not been for the incompar-
able infantry trainedby the "Old Dessauer" he would never have
had the opportunity of doing so. Thus Leopold, heartily sup-
ported by Frederick William, who was himself called the great
drill-master of Europe, turned to good account the twenty years
following the peace with Sweden. During this time two incidents
in his career call for special mention: first, his intervention in the
case of the crown prince Frederick, who was condemned to death
for desertion, and his continued and finally successful efforts to

ANHYDRITE— ANILINE

secure Frederick's reinstatement in the Prussian army; and
secondly, his part in the War of the Polish Succession on the Rhine,
where he served under his old chief Eugene and held the office of
field marshal of the Empire.

With the death of Frederick William in 1740, Frederick
succeeded to the Prussian throne, and a few months later took
place the invasion and conquest of Silesia, the first act in the long
Silesian wars and the test of the work of the "Old Dessauer's"
lifetime. The prince himself was not often employed in the
king's own army, though his sons held high commands under
Frederick. The king, indeed, found Leopold, who was reputed,
since the death of Eugene, the greatest of living soldiers, somewhat
difficult to manage, and the prince spent most of the campaigning
years up to 1745 in command of an army of observation on the
Saxon frontier. Early in that year his wife died. He was now
over seventy, but his last campaign was destined to be the most
brilliant of his long career. A combined effort of the Austrians
and Saxons to retrieve the disasters of the summer by a winter
campaign towards Berlin itself led to a hurried concentration of
the Prussians. Frederick from Silesia checked the Austrian main
army and hastened towards Dresden. But before he had
arrived, Leopold, no longer in observation, had decided the war by
his overwhelming victory of Kesselsdorf (December 14, 1745). It
was his habit to pray before battle, for he was a devout Lutheran.
On this last field his words were, " O Lord God, let me not be
disgraced in my old days. Or if Thou wilt not help me, do not help
these scoundrels, but leave us to try it ourselves." With this
great victory Leopold's career ended. He retired from active
service, and the short remainder of his life was spent at Dessau,
where he died on the 7th of April 1747.

He was succeeded by his son, Leopold II., Maximilian, Prince
of Anhalt-Dessau (1700-1751), who was one of the best of
Frederick's subordinate generals, and especially distinguished
himself by the capture of Glogau in 1741, and his generalship at
Mollwitz, Chotusitz (where he was made general field marshal on
the field of battle), Hohenfriedberg and Soor.

Another son, Prince Dietrich of Anhalt-Dessau (d. 1769),
was also a distinguished Prussian general.

But the most famous of the sons was Prince Moritz of
Anhalt-Dessau (1712-1760), who entered the Prussian army in
1725, saw his first service as a volunteer in the War of the Polish
Succession (1734-35), ar >d in the latter years of the reign of
Frederick William held important commands. In the Silesian
wars of Frederick II., Moritz, the ablest of the old Leopold's sons,
greatly distinguished himself, especially at the battle of Hohen-
friedberg (Striegau), 1745. At Kesselsdorf it was the wing led by
the young Prince Moritz that carried the Austrian lines and won
the ''Old Dessauer's" last fight. In the years of peace preceding the
Seven Years' War, Moritz was employed by Frederick the Great
in the colonizing of the waste lands of Pomerania and the Oder
Valley. When the king took the field again in 1756, Moritz was
in command of one of the columns which hemmed in the Saxon
army in the lines of Pirna, and he received the surrender of
Rutowski's force after the failure of the Austrian attempts at
relief. Next year Moritz underwent changes of fortune. At the
battle of Kolin he led the left wing, which, through a misunder-
standing with the king, was prematurely rjrawn into action and
failed hopelessly. In the disastrous days which followed, Moritz
was under the cloud of Frederick's displeasure. But the glorious
victory of Leuthen (December 5, 1757) put an end to this. At the
close of that day, Frederick rode down the lines and called out to
General Prince Moritz, "I congratulate you, Herr Feldmarschall!"
At Zorndorf he again distinguished himself, but at the surprise of
Hochkirch fell wounded into the hands of the Austrians. Two
years later, soon after his release, his wound proved mortal.

Authorities. — Varnhagen von Ense, Preuss. biographische Denk-
male, vol. ii. (3rd ed., 1872); Militar Konversations-Lexikon,
vol. ii. (Leipzig, 1833) ; Anon., Fiirst Leopold I. von Anhalt und seine
Sbhne (Dessau, 1852); G. Pauli, Leben grosser Heiden, vol. vi. ;
von Orlich, Prim Moritz von Anhalt-Dessau (Berlin, 1842) ; Crousatz,
Militdrische Denkwiirdigkeiten des Fursten Leopold von Anhalt-Dessau
(1875); supplements to Militar Wochenblatt (1878 and 1889);
Siebigk, Selbstbiographie des Fursten Leopold von Anhalt-Dessau

(Dessau, i860 and 1876); Hosaus, Zur Biographie des Fursten
Leopold von Anhalt-Dessau (Dessau, 1876); Wiirdig, Des Alten
Dessauers Leben und Taten (3rd ed., Dessau, 1903); Briefe Kbnig
Friedrich Wilhelms I. an den Fursten L. (Berlin, 1905).

ANHYDRITE, a mineral, differing chemically from the more
commonly occurring gypsum in containing no water of crystal-
lization, being anhydrous calcium sulphate, CaS04. It crystal-
lizes in the orthorhombic system, and has three directions of
perfect cleavage parallel to the three planes of symmetry. It is
not isomorphous with the orthorhombic barium and strontium
sulphates, as might be expected from the chemical formulae.
Distinctly developed crystals are somewhat rare, the mineral
usually presenting the form of cleavage masses. The hardness
is 3 1 and the specific gravity 2-9. The colour is white, sometimes
greyish, bluish or reddish. On the best developed of the three
cleavages the lustre is pearly, on other surfaces it is of the
ordinary vitreous type.

Anhydrite is most frequently found in salt deposits with
gypsum; it was, for instance, first discovered, in 1794, in a salt
mine near Hall in Tirol. Other localities which produce typical
specimens of the mineral, and where the mode of occurrence is
the same, are Stassfurt in Germany, Aussee in Styria and Bex
in Switzerland. At all these places it is only met with at some
depth; nearer the surface of the ground it has been altered to
gypsum owing to absorption of water.

From an aqueous solution calcium sulphate is deposited as
crystals of gypsum, but when the solution contains an excess of
sodium or potassium chloride anhydrite is deposited. This is
one of the several methods by which the mineral has been
prepared artificially, and is identical with its mode of
origin in nature, the mineral having crystallized out in salt
basins.

The name anhydrite was given by A. G. Werner in 1804,
because of the absence of water, as contrasted with the presence
of water in gypsum. Other names for the species are muriacite
and karstenite; the former, an earlier name, being given under
the impression that the substance was a chloride (muriate).
A peculiar variety occurring as contorted concretionary masses
is known as tripe-stone, and a scaly granular variety, from
Vulpino, near Bergamo, in Lombardy, as vulpinite; the latter is
cut and polished for ornamental purposes. (L. J. S.)

ANI (anc. Abnicum), an ancient and ruined Armenian city, in
Russian Transcaucasia, government Erivan, situated at an
altitude of 4390 ft., between the Arpa-chai {Harpasus) and a deep
ravine. In 961 it became the capital of the Bagratid kings of
Armenia, and when yielded to the Byzantine emperor (1046) it .
was a populous city, known traditionally as the " city with the
1 00 1 churches." It was taken eighteen years later by the Seljuk
Turks, five times by the Georgians between 1125 and 1209, in
1239 by the Mongols, and its ruin was completed by an earth-
quake in 1319. It is still surrounded by a double wall partly in
ruins, and amongst the remains are a " patriarchal " church
finished in 1010, two other churches, both of the nth century,
a fourth built in 121 5, and a palace of large size.

See Brosset, Les Ruines d'Ani (1860-1861).

ANICETUS, pope c. 154-167. It was during his pontificate
that St Polycarp visited the Roman Church.

ANICHINI, LUIGI, Italian engraver of seals and medals, a
native of Ferrara, lived at Venice about 1550. Michelangelo
pronounced his " Interview of Alexander the Great with the
high-priest at Jerusalem," "the perfection of the art." His
medals of Henry II. of France and Pope Paul III. are greatly
valued.

ANILINE, Phenylamine, or Aminobenzene, (CcHsNH;.), an
organic base first obtained from the destructive distillation of
indigo in 1826 by O. Unverdorben (Pogg. Ann., 1826, 8, p. 397),
who named it crystalline. In 1834, F. Runge (Pogg. Ann., 1834,
31, p. 65; 32, p. 331) isolated from coal-tar a substance which
produced a beautiful blue colour on treatment with chloride of
lime; this he named kyanol or cyanol. In 1841, C. J. Fritzsche
showed that by treating indigo with caustic potash it yielded an
oil, which he named aniline, from the specific name of one of the

4 8

ANIMAL— ANIMAL HEAT

indigo-yielding plants, Indigofera anil, anil being derived from
the Sanskrit nila, dark-blue, and nila, the indigo plant. About
the same time N. N. Zinin found that on reducing nitrobenzene,
a base was formed which he named benzidam. A. W. von
Hofmann investigated these variously prepared substances, and
proved them to be identical, and thenceforth they took their
place as one body, under the name aniline or phenylamine.
Pure aniline is a basic substance of an oily consistence, colourless,
melting at —8° and boiling at 184 C. On exposure to air it
absorbs oxygen and resinifies, becoming deep brown in colour;
it ignites readily, burning with a large smoky flame. It possesses
a somewhat pleasant vinous odour and a burning aromatic
taste; it is a highly acrid poison.

Aniline is a weak base and forms salts with the mineral acids.
Aniline hydrochloride forms large colourless tables, which
become greenish on exposure; it is the " aniline salt " of com-
merce. The sulphate forms beautiful white plates. Although
aniline is but feebly basic, it precipitates zinc, aluminium and
ferric salts, and on warming expels ammonia from its salts.
Aniline combines directly with alkyl iodides to form secondary
and tertiary amines; boiled with carbon disulphide it gives
sulphocarbanilide (diphenyl thio-urea), CS(NHC 6 H 6 )2, which
may be decomposed into phenyl mustard-oil, C6H5CNS, and
triphenyl guanidine, C 6 H 5 N: C(NHC 6 H 5 )2. Sulphuric acid at
180° gives sulphanilic acid, N^-CeH^SOaH. Anilides, com-
pounds in which the amino group is substituted by an acid
radical, are prepared by heating aniline with certain acids;
antifebrin or acetanilide is thus obtained from acetic acid and
aniline. The oxidation of aniline has been carefully investigated.
In alkaline solution azobenzene results, while arsenic acid pro-
duces the violet-colouring matter violaniline. Chromic acid
converts it into quinone, while chlorates, in the presence of
certain metallic salts (especially of vanadium), give aniline black.
Hydrochloric acid and potassium chlorate give chloranil. Potas-
sium permanganate in neutral solution oxidizes it to nitro-
benzene, in alkaline solution to azobenzene, ammonia and oxalic
acid, in acid solution to aniline black. Hypochlorous acid gives
para-amino phenol and para-amino diphenylamine (E. Bam-
berger, Ber., 1898, 31, p. 1522).

The great commercial value of aniline is due to the readiness
with which it yields, directly or indirectly, valuable dyestuffs.
The discovery of mauve in 1858 by Sir W. H. Perkin was the
first of a series of dyestuffs which are now to be numbered by
hundreds. Reference should be made to the articles Dyeing,
Fuchsine, Safranine, Indulines, for more details on this
subject. In addition to dyestuffs, it is a starting-product for
the manufacture of many drugs, such as antipyrine, antifebrin,
&c. Aniline is manufactured by reducing nitrobenzene with
iron and hydrochloric acid and steam-distilling the product.
The purity of the product depends upon the quality of the
benzene from which the nitrobenzene was prepared. In com-
merce three brands of aniline are distinguished — aniline oil for
blue, which is pure aniline; aniline oil for red, a mixture of
equimolecular quantities of aniline and ortho- and para-tolui-
dines; and aniline oil for safranine, which contains aniline and
ortho-toluidine, and is obtained from the distillate {Schappis) of
the fuchsine fusion. Monomethyl and dimethyl aniline are
colourless liquids prepared by heating aniline, aniline hydro-
chloride and methyl alcohol in an autoclave at 220°. They are
of great importance in the colour industry. Monomethyl aniline
boils at 103-105°; dimethyl aniline at 192°.

ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul), a term first
used as a noun or adjective to denote a living thing, but now used
to designate one branch of living things as opposed to the other
branch known as plants. Until the discovery of protoplasm,
and the series of investigations by which it was established that
the cell was a fundamental structure essentially alike in both
animals and plants (see Cytology), there was a vague belief
that plants, if they could really be regarded as animated crea-
tures, exhibited at the most a lower grade of life. We know now
that in so far as life and living matter can be investigated by
science, animals and plants cannot be described as being alive

in different degrees. Animals and plants are extremely closely
related organisms, alike in their fundamental characters, and each
grading into organisms which possess some of the characters of
both classes or kingdoms (see Protista). The actual boundaries
between animals and plants are artificial; they are rather due to
the ingenious analysis of the systematist than actually resident in
objective nature. The most obvious distinction is that the animal
cell-wall is either absent or composed of a nitrogenous material,
whereas the plant cell-wall is composed of a carbohydrate
material — cellulose. The animal and the plant alike require food
to repair waste, to build up new tissue and to provide material
which, by chemical change, may liberate the energy which
appears in the processes of life. The food is alike in both cases;
it consists of water, certain inorganic salts, carbohydrate
material and proteid material. Both animals and plants take
their water and inorganic salts directly as such. The animal
c,ell can absorb its carbohydrate and proteid food only in the
form of carbohydrate and proteid; it is dependent, in fact, on
the pre-existence of these organic substances, themselves the
products of living matter, and in this respect the animal is
essentially a parasite on existing animal and plant life. The
plant, on the other hand, if it be a green plant, containing chloro-
phyll, is capable, in the presence of light, of building up both,
carbohydrate material and proteid material from inorganic
salts; if it be a fungus, devoid of chlorophyll, whilst it is de-
pendent on pre-existing carbohydrate material and is capable
of absorbing, like an animal, proteid material as such, it is able
to build up its proteid food from material chemically simpler
than proteid. On these basal differences are founded most of
the characters which make the higher forms of animal and plant
life so different. The animal body, if it be composed of many
cells, follows a different architectural plan; the compact nature
of its food, and the yielding nature of its cell-walls, result in a
form of structure consisting essentially of tubular or spherical
masses of cells arranged concentrically round the food-cavity.
The relatively rigid nature of the plant cell-wall, and the attenu-
ated inorganic food-supply of plants, make possible and neces-
sary a form of growth in which the greatest surface is exposed
to the exterior, and thus the plant body is composed of flattened
laminae and elongated branching growths. The distinctions
between animals and plants are in fact obviously secondary
and adaptive, and point clearly towards the conception of a
common origin for the two forms of life, a conception which
is made still more probable by the existence of many low forms
in which the primary differences between animals and plants
fade out.

An animal may be defined as a living organism, the protoplasm
of which does not secrete a cellulose cell-wall, and which requires
for its existence proteid material obtained from the living or
dead bodies of existing plants or animals. The common use of
the word animal as the equivalent of mammal, as opposed to
bird or reptile or fish, is erroneous.

The classification of the animal kingdom is dealt with in the
article Zoology. (P. C. M.)

ANIMAL HEAT. Under this heading is discussed the
physiology of the temperature of the animal body.

The higher animals have within their bodies certain sources
of heat, and also some mechanism by means of which both the
production and loss of heat can be regulated. This is conclusively
shown by the fact that both in summer and winter their mean
temperature remains the same. But it was not until the intro-
duction of thermometers that any exact data on the temperature
of animals could be obtained. It was then found that local
differences were present, since heat production and heat loss
vary considerably in different parts of the body, although the
circulation of the blood tends to bring about a mean temperature
of the internal parts. [Hence it is important to determine the
temperature of those parts which most nearly approaches to
that of the internal organs. Also for such results to be compar-
able they must be made in the same situation. The rectum
gives most accurately the temperature of internal parts, or in
women and some animals the vagina, uterus or bladder.

ANIMAL HEAT

99-4

988

Occasionally that of the urine as it leaves the urethra may be
of use. More usually the temperature is taken in the mouth,
axilla or groin.

Warm and Cold Blooded Animals. — By numerous observations
upon men and animals, John Hunter showed that the essential
difference between the so-called warm-blooded and cold-blooded
animals lies in the constancy of the temperature of the former,
and the variability of the temperature of the latter. Those
animals high in the scale of evolution, as hirds and mammals,
have a high temperature almost constant and independent of
that of the surrounding air, whereas among the lower animals
there is much variation of body temperature, dependent entirely
on their surroundings. There are, however, certain mammals
which are exceptions, being warm-blooded during the summer,
but cold-blooded during the winter when they hibernate; such
are the hedgehog, bat and dormouse. John Hunter suggested
that two groups should be known as " animals of permanent
heat at all atmospheres " and " animals of a heat variable with
every atmosphere," but later Bergmann suggested that they
should be known as " homoiothermic " and " poikilothermic "
animals. But it must be re-
membered there is no hard and
fast line between the two
groups. Also, from work re-
cently done by J. O. Wakelin
Barratt, it has been shown that 99-6
under certain pathological con
ditions a warm-blooded (homoi-
othermic) animal may become " 2
for a time cold-blooded (poiki- 99.0
lothermic). He has shown
conclusively that this condition
exists in rabbits suffering from 98-6
rabies during the last period of
their life, the rectal temperature
being then within a few degrees 98 ' 2
of the room temperature and ^.q
varying with it. He explains
this condition by the assump
tion that the nervous mechan
ism of heat regulation has
become paralysed. The re-
spiration and heart-rate being 97-2
also retarded during this period,
the resemblance to the condition
of hibernation is considerable. Again, Sutherland Simpson has
shown that during deep anaesthesia a warm-blooded animal tends
to take the same temperature as that of its. environment. He
demonstrated that when a monkey is kept deeply anaesthetized
with ether and is placed in a cold chamber, its temperature gradu-
ally falls, and that when it has reached a sufficiently low point
(about 2 5 C. in the monkey) , the employment of an anaesthetic is
no longer necessary, the animal then being insensible to pain and
incapable of being roused by any form of stimulus; it is, in fact,
narcotized by cold, and is in a state of what may be called
"artificial hibernation." Once again this is explained by the
fact that the heat-regulating mechanism has been interfered
with. Similar results have been obtained from experiments on
cats. These facts — with many others — tend to show that the
power of maintaining a constant temperature has been a gradual
development, as Darwin's theory of evolution suggests, and that
anything that interferes with the due working of the higher
nerve-centres puts the animal back again, for the time being, on
to a lower plane of evolution.

Variations in the Temperature of Man and some other Animals. —
As stated above, the temperature of warm-blooded animals is
maintained with but slight variation. In health under normal
conditions the temperature of man varies between 36 C. and
38° C, or if the thermometer be placed in the axilla, between
36-25° C. and 37 -5° C. In the mouth the reading would be from
•25 C. to 1-5° C. higher than this; and in the rectum some -9° C.
higher still. The temperature of infants and young children

has a much greater range than this, and is susceptible of wide
divergencies from comparatively slight causes.

Of the lower warm-blooded animals, there are some that
appear to be cold-blooded at birth. Kittens, rabbits and puppies,
if removed from their surroundings shortly after birth, lose their
body heat until their temperature has fallen to within a few
degrees of that of the surrounding air. But such animals are at
birth blind, helpless and in some cases naked. Animals who are
born when in a condition of greater development can maintain
their temperature fairly constant. In strong, healthy infants
a day or two old the temperature rises slightly, but in that of
weakly, ill-developed children it either remains stationary or
falls. The cause of the variable temperature in infants and
young immature animals is the imperfect development of the
nervous regulating mechanism.

The average temperature falls slightly from infancy to puberty
and again from puberty to middle age, but after that stage is
passed the temperature begins to rise again, and by about the
eightieth year is as high as in infancy. A diurnal variation has
been observed dependent on the periods of rest and activity,

Hours of activity and work.

Hours of rest and sleep.

98-4

97 8

97-6

the maximum ranging from 10 a.m. to 6 p.m., the minimum from
11 p.m. to 3 a.m. Sutherland Simpson and J. J. Galbraith have
recently done much work on this subject. In their first experi-
ments they showed that in a monkey there is a well-marked and
regular diurnal variation of the body temperature, and that by
reversing the daily routine this diurnal variation is also reversed.
The diurnal temperature curve follows the periods of rest and
activity, and is not dependent on the incidence of day and night;
in monkeys which are active during the night and resting during
the day, the body temperature is highest at night and lowest
through the day. They then made observations on the tempera ^
ture of animals and birds of nocturnal habit, where the periods
of rest and activity are naturally the reverse of the ordinary
through habit and not from outside interference. They found
that in nocturnal birds the temperature is highest during the
natural period of activity (night) and lowest during the period
of rest (day), but that the mean temperature is lower and the
range less than in diurnal birds of the same size. That the
temperature curve of diurnal birds is essentially similar to that
of man and other homoiothermal animals, except that the
maximum occurs earlier in the afternoon and the minimum
earlier in the morning. Also that the curves obtained from
rabbit, guinea-pig and dog were quite similar to those from man.
The mean temperature of the female was higher than that of the
male in all the species examined whose sex had been determined.
Meals sometimes cause a slight elevation, sometimes a slight
depression — alcohol seems always to produce a fall. Exercise

5°

ANIMAL WORSHIP

and variations of external temperature within ordinary limits
cause very slight change, as there are many compensating
influences at work, which are discussed later. Even from very
active exercise the temperature does not rise more than one
degree, and if carried to exhaustion a fall is observed. In
travelling from very cold to very hot regions a variation of less
than one degree occurs, and the temperature of those living in
the tropics is practically identical with those dwelling in the
Arctic regions.

Limits compatible with Life. — There are limits both of heat and
cold that a warm-blooded animal can bear, and other far wider
limits that a cold-blooded animal may endure and yet live.
The effect of too extreme a cold is to lessen metabolism, and
hence to lessen the production of heat. Both katabolic and
anabolic changes share in the depression, and though less energy
is used up, still less energy is generated. This diminished
metabolism tells first on the central nervous system, especially
the brain and those parts concerned in consciousness. Both
heart-beat and respiration-number become diminished, drowsiness
supervenes, becoming steadily deeper until it passes into the
sleep of death. Occasionally, however, convulsions may set
in towards the end, and a death somewhat similar to that of
asphyxia takes place. In some recent experiments on cats
performed by Sutherland Simpson and Percy T. Herring, they
found them unable to survive when the rectal temperature
was reduced below i6° C. At this low temperature respiration
became increasingly feeble, the heart-impulse usually continued
after respiration had ceased, the beats becoming very irregular,
apparently ceasing, then beginning again. Death appeared
to be mainly due to asphyxia, and the only certain sign that
it had taken place was the loss of knee jerks. On the other
hand, too high a temperature hurries on the metabolism of the
various tissues at such a rate that their capital is soon exhausted.
Blood that is too warm produces dyspnoea and soon exhausts
the metabolic capital of the respiratory centre. The rate of
the heart is quickened, the beats then become irregular and finally
cease. The central nervous system is also profoundly affected,
consciousness may be lost, and the patient falls into a comatose
condition, or delirium and convulsions may set in. All these
changes can be watched in any patient suffering from an acute
fever. The lower limit of temperature that man can endure
depends on many things, but no one can survive a temperature
of 45 C. (113 F.) or above for very long. Mammalian muscle
becomes rigid with heat rigor at about 50° C, and obviously should
this temperature be reached the sudden rigidity of the whole
body would render life impossible. H. M. Vernon has recently
done work on the death temperature and paralysis temperature
(temperature of heat rigor) of various animals. He found that
animals of the same class of the animal kingdom showed very
similar temperature values, those from the Amphibia examined
being 38-5° C, Fishes 30°, Reptilia 45 , and various Molluscs 46 .
Also in the case of Pelagic animals he showed a relation between
death temperature and the quantity of solid constituents of
the body, Cestus having lowest death temperature and least
amount of solids in its body. But in the higher animals his
experiments tend to show that there is greater variation in both
the chemical and physical characters of the protoplasm, and hence
greater variation in the extreme temperature compatible with life.

Regulation of Temperature. — The heat of the body is generated
by the chemical changes — those of oxidation — undergone not
by any particular substance or in any one place, but by the tissues
at large. Wherever destructive metabolism (katabolism) is
going on, heat is being set free. When a muscle does work it
also gives rise to heat, and if this is estimated it can be shown
that the muscles alone during their contractions provide far
more heat than the whole amount given out by the body. Also
it must be remembered that the heart — also a muscle, — never
resting, does in the 24 hours no inconsiderable amount of work,
and hence must give rise to no inconsiderable amount of heat.
From this it is clear that the larger proportion of total heat of
the body is supplied by the muscles. These are essentially the
" thermogenic tissues." Next to the muscles as heat generators

come the various secretory glands, especially the liver, which
appears never to rest in this respect. The brain also must be
a source of heat, since its temperature is higher than that of the
arterial blood with which it is supplied. Also a certain amount
of heat is produced by the changes which the food undergoes
in the alimentary canal before it really enters the body. But
heat while continually being produced is also continually being
lost by the skin, lungs, urine and faeces. And it is by the constant
modification of these two factors, (1) heat production and (2)
heat loss, that the constant temperature of a warm-blooded
animal is maintained. Heat is lost to the body through the
faeces and urine, respiration, conduction and radiation from
the skin, and by evaporation of perspiration. The following
are approximately the relative amounts of heat lost through these
various channels (different authorities give somewhat different
figures): — faeces and urine about 3, respiration about 20, skin
(conduction, radiation and evaporation) about 77. Hence it
is clear the chief means of loss are the skin and the lungs. The
more air that passes in and out of the lungs in a given time,
the greater the loss of heat. And in such animals as the dog,
who do not perspire easily by the skin, respiration becomes
far more important.

But for man the great heat regulator is undoubtedly the skin,
which regulates heat loss by its vasomotor mechanism, and
also by the nervous mechanism of perspiration. Dilatation oi
the cutaneous vascular areas leads to a larger flow of blood
through the skin, and so tends to cool the body, and vice versa.
Also the special nerves of perspiration can increase or lessen
heat loss by promoting or diminishing the secretions of the
skin. There are greater difficulties in the exact determination
in the amount of heat produced, but there are certain well-
known facts in connexion with it. A larger living body naturally
produces more heat than a smaller one of the same nature, but
the surface of the smaller, being greater in proportion to its
bulk than that of the larger, loses heat at a more rapid rate.
Hence to maintain the same constant bodily temperature, the
smaller animal must produce a relatively larger amount of heat.
And in the struggle for existence this has become so.

Food temporarily increases the production of heat, the rate
of production steadily rising after a meal until a maximum is
reached from about the 6th to the 9th hour. If sugar be included
in the meal the maximum is reached earlier; if mainly fat, later.
Muscular work very largely increases the production of heat,
and hence the more active the body the greater the production
of heat.

But all the arrangements in the animal economy for the pro-
duction and loss of heat are themselves probably regulated
by the central nervous system, there being a thermogenic centre
— situated above the spinal cord, and according to some observers
in the optic thalamus.

Authorities. — M.S. Pembrey, "Animal Heat," inSchafer's Text-
book of Physiology (1898); C. R. Richet, " Chaleur," in Dictionnaire
de physiologie (Paris, 1898) ; Hale White, Croonian Lectures, Lancet,
London, 1897; Pembrey and Nicol, Journal of Physiology, vol.
xxiii., 1898-1899; H. M.Vernon, "Heat Rigor," Journal of Physio-
logy,'xxiv., 1899; H. M. Vernon, "Death Temperatures," Journal
of Physiology, xxv., 1899; F. C. Eve, "Temperature on Nerve
Cells," Journal of Physiology, xxvi., 1900; G. Weiss, Comptes Rendus,
Soc. de Biol., lii., 1900; Swale Vincent and Thomas Lewis, " Heat
Rigor of Muscle," Journal of Physiology, 1901 ; Sutherland Simpson
and Percy Herring, " Cold and Reflex Action," Journal of Physiology,
1905 ; Sutherland Simpson, Proceedings of Physiological Soc, July
19, 1902; Sutherland Simpson and J. J. Galbraith, "Diurnal
Variation of Body Temperature," Journal of Physiology, 1905;
Transactions Royal Society Edinburgh, 1905; Proc. Physiological
Society, p. xx., 1903; A. E. Boycott and J. S. Haldane, Effects of
High Temperatures on Man.

ANIMAL WORSHIP, an ill-defined term, covering facts
ranging from the worship of the real divine animal, commonly
conceived as a " god-body," at one end of the scale, to respect
for the bones of a slain animal or even the use of a respectful
name for the living animal at the other end. Added to this,
in many works on the subject we find reliance placed, especially
for the African facts, on reports of travellers who were merely
visitors to the regions on which they wrote.

ANIMAL WORSHIP

5 1

Classification. — Animal cults may be classified in two ways:
(A) according to their outward form; (B) according to their
inward meaning, which may of course undergo transformations.

(A) There are two broad divisions: (i) all animals of a given
species are sacred, perhaps owing to the impossibility of dis-
tinguishing the sacred few from the profane crowd; (2) one or
a fixed number of a species are sacred. It is probable that the
first of these forms is the primary one and the second in most
cases a development from it due to (i.) the influence of other
individual cults, (ii.) anthropomorphic tendencies, (iii.) the
influence of chieftainship, hereditary and otherwise, (iv.) annual
sacrifice of the sacred animal and mystical ideas connected
therewith, (v.) syncretism, due either to unity of function or to
a philosophic unification, (vi.) the desire to do honour to the
species in the person of one of its members, and possibly other
less easily traceable causes.

(B) Treating cults according to their meaning, which is not
necessarily identical with the cause which first led to the deifica-
tion of the animal in question, we can classify them under ten
specific heads: (i.) pastoral cults; (ii.) hunting cults; (iii.) cults
of dangerous or noxious animals; (iv.) cults of animals regarded
as human souls or their embodiment; (v.) totemistic cults;
(vi.) cults of secret societies, and individual cults of tutelary
animals; (vii.) cults of tree and vegetation spirits; (-viii.) cults of
ominous animals; (ix.) cults, probably derivative, of animals
associated with certain deities; (x.) cults of animals used in
magic.

(i.) The pastoral type falls into two sub-types, in which the species
(a) is spared and (b) sometimes receives special honour at intervals
in the person of an individual. (See Cattle, Buffalo, below.)

(ii.) In hunting cults the species is habitually killed, but (a)
occasionally honoured in the person of a single individual, or (b)
each slaughtered animal receives divine honours. (See Bear, below.)

(iii.) The cult of dangerous animals is due (a) to the fear that the
soul of the slain beast may take vengeance on the hunter, (b) to a
desire to placate the rest of the species. (See Leopard, below.)

(iv.) Animals are frequently regarded as the abode, temporary or
permanent, of the souls of the dead, sometimes as the actual souls of
the dead. Respect for them is due to two main reasons: (a) the
kinsmen of the dead desire to preserve the goodwill of their dead
relatives ; (b) they wish at the same time to secure that their kinsmen
are not molested and caused to undergo unnecessary suffering. (See
Serpent, below.)

(v.) One of the most widely found modes of showing respect to
animals is known as totemism (see Totem and Totemism), but
except in decadent forms there is but little positive worship ; in
Central Australia, however, the rites of the Wollunqua totem group
are directed towards placating this mythical animal, and cannot be
termed anything but religious ceremonies.

(vi.) In secret societies we find bodies of men grouped together
with a single tutelary animal ; the individual, in the same way,
acquires the nagual or individual totem, sometimes by ceremonies
of the nature of the bloodbond.

(vii.) Spirits of vegetation in ancient and modern Europe and in
China are conceived in animal form. (See Goat, below.)

(viii.) The ominous animal or bird may develop into a deity. (See
Hawk, below.)

(ix.) It is commonly assumed that the animals associated with
certain deities are sacred because the god was originally therio-
morphic; this is doubtless the case in certain instances; but Apollo
Smintheus, Dionysus Bassareus and other examples seem to show
that the god may have been appealed to for help and thus become
associated with the animals from whom he protected the crops, &c.

(x.) The use of animals in magic may sometimes give rise to a kind
of respect for them, but this is of a negative nature. See, however,
articles by Preuss in Globus, vol. lxvii., in which he maintains that
animals of magical influence are elevated into divinities.

Bear. — The bear enjoys a large measure of respect from all
savage races that come in contact with it, which shows itself in

apologies and in festivals in its honour. The most
cults. important developments of the cult are in East Asia

among the Siberian tribes; among the Ainu of Sak-
halin a young bear is caught at the end of winter and fed for
some nine months; then after receiving honours it is killed, and
the people, who previously show marks of grief at its approaching
fate, dance merrily and feast on its body. Among the Gilyaks a
similar festival is found, but here it takes the form of a celebration
in honour of a recently dead kinsman, to whom the spirit of the
bear is sent. Whether this feature or a cult of the hunting type

was the primary form, is so far an open question. There is, a
good deal of evidence to connect the Greek goddess Artemis
with a cult of the bear; girls danced as "bears" in her honour,
and might not marry before undergoing this ceremony. The
bear is traditionally associated with Bern in Switzerland, and in
1832 a statue of Artio, a bear goddess, was dug up there.

Buffalo. — The Todas of S. India abstain from the flesh of their
domestic animal, the buffalo; but once a year they sacrifice a
bull calf, which is eaten in the forest by the adult males.

Cattle. — Cattle are respected by many pastoral peoples; they
live on milk or game, and the killing of an ox is a sacrificial
function. Conspicuous among Egyptian animal cults was that
of the bull, Apis. It was distinguished by certain marks, and
when the old Apis died a new one was sought; the finder was
rewarded, and the bull underwent four months' education at
Nilopolis. Its birthday was celebrated once a year; oxen,
which had to be pure white, were sacrificed to it; women were
forbidden to approach it when once its education was finished.
Oracles were obtained from it in various ways. After death it
was mummified and buried in a rock-tomb. Less widespread
was the cult of the Mnevis, also consecrated to Osiris. Similar
observances are found in our own day on the Upper Nile; the
Nuba and Nuer worship the bull; the Angoni of Central Africa
and the Sakalava of Madagascar keep sacred bulls. In India
respect for the cow is widespread, but is of post-Vedic origin;
there is little actual worship, but the products of the cow are
important in magic.

Crow. — The crow is the chief deity of the Thlinkit Indians of
N. W. America; and all over that region it is the chief figure in a
group of myths, fulfilling the office of a culture hero who brings
the light, gives fire to mankind, &c. Together with the eagle-
hawk the crow plays a great part in the mythology of S.E.
Australia.

Dog. — Actual dog- worship is uncommon; the Nosarii of
western Asia are said to worship a dog; the Kalangs of Java
had a cult of the red dog, each family keeping one in the house;
according to one authority the dogs are images of wood which
are worshipped after the death of a member of the family and
burnt after a thousand days. In Nepal it is said that dogs are
worshipped at the festival called Khicha Puja. Among the
Harranians dogs were sacred, but this was rather as brothers of
the mystae.

Elephant. — In Siam it is believed that a white elephant may
contain the soul of a dead person, perhaps a Buddha; when one
is taken the capturer is rewarded and the animal brought to the
king to be kept ever afterwards; it cannot be bought or sold.
It is baptized and feted and mourned for like a human being at
its death. In some parts of Indo-China the belief is that the soul
of the elephant may injure people after death; it is therefore
feted by a whole village. In Cambodia it is held to bring luck
to the kingdom. In Sumatra the elephant is regarded as a
tutelary spirit. The cult of the white elephant is also found at
Ennarea, southern Abyssinia.

Fish. — Dagon seems to have been a fish-god with human head
and hands; his worshippers wore fish-skins. In the temples of
Apollo and Aphrodite were sacred fish, which may point to a
fish cult. Atargatis is said to have had sacred fish at Askelon,
and from Xenophon we read that the fish of the Chalus were
regarded as gods.

Goat. — Dionysus was believed to take the form of a goat,
probably as a divinity of vegetation. Pan, Silenus, the Satyrs
and. the Fauns were either capriform or had some part of their
bodies shaped like that of a goat. In northern Europe the wood
spirit, Ljesche, is believed to have a goat's horns, ears and legs.
In Africa the Bijagos are said to have a goat as their principal
divinity.

Hare. — In North America the Algonquin tribes had as their
chief deity a " mighty great hare " to whom they went at death.
According to one account he lived in the east, according to
another in the north. In his anthropomorphized form he was
known as Menabosho or Michabo.

Hawk. — In North Borneo we seem to see the evolution of a

ANIME

god in the three stages of the cult of the hawk among the Ken-
yans, the Kayans and the sea Dyaks. The Kenyahs will not
kill it, address to it thanks for assistance, and formally consult
it before leaving home on an expedition; it seems, however,
to be regarded as the messenger of the supreme god Balli Penya-
long. The Kayans have a hawk-god, Laki Neho, but seem to
regard the hawk as the servant of the chief god, Laki Tenangan.
Singalang Burong, the hawk-god of the Dyaks, is completely
anthropomorphized. He is god of omens and ruler of the omen
birds; but the hawk is not his messenger, for he never leaves
his house; stories are, however, told of his attending feasts in
human form and flying away in hawk form when all was over.

Horse. — There is some reason to believe that Poseidon, like
other water gods, was originally conceived under the form of a
horse. In the cave of Phigalia Demeter was, according to
popular tradition, represented with the head and mane of a
horse, possibly a relic of the time when a non-specialized corn-
spirit bore this form. Her priests were called Poloi (colts) in
Laconia. In Gaul we find a horse-goddess, Epona; there are
also traces of a horse-god, Rudiobus. The Gonds in India
worship a horse-god, Koda Pen, in the form of a shapeless stone;
but it is not clear that the horse is regarded as divine. The
horse or mare is a -common form of the corn-spirit in Europe.

Leopard. — The cult of the leopard is widely found in West
Africa. Among the Ewe a man who kills one is liable to be put
to death; no leopard skin may be exposed to view, but a stuffed
leopard is worshipped. On the Gold Coast a leopard hunter
who has killed his victim is carried round the town behind the
body of the leopard; he may not speak, must besmear himself
so as to look like a leopard and imitate its movements. In
Loango a prince's cap is put upon the head of a dead leopard,
and dances are held in its honour.

Lion. — The lion was associated with the Egyptian gods Re
and Horus; there was a lion-god at Baalbek and a lion-headed
goddess Sekhet. The Arabs had a lion-god, Yaghuth. In
modern Africa we find a lion-idol among the Balonda.

Lizard. — The cult of the lizard is most prominent in the
Pacific, where it appears as an incarnation of Tangaloa. In
Easter Island a form of the house-god is the lizard; it is also a
tutelary deity in Madagascar.

Mantis. — Cagn is a prominent figure in Bushman mythology;
the mantis and the caterpillar, Ngo, are his incarnations. It was
called the " Hottentots' god " by early settlers.

Monkey. — In India the monkey-god, Hanuman, is a prominent
figure; in orthodox villages monkeys are safe from harm.
Monkeys are said to be worshipped in Togo. At Porto Novo, in
French West Africa, twins have tutelary spirits in the shape of
small monkeys.

Serpent. — The cult of the serpent is found in many parts of
the Old World; it is also not unknown in America; in Australia,
on the other hand, though many species of serpent are found,
there does not appear to be any species of cult unless we include
the Warramunga cult of the mythical Wollunqua totem animal,
whom they seek to placate by rites. In Africa the chief centre
of serpent worship was Dahomey; but the cult of the python
seems to have been of exotic origin, dating back to the first
quarter of the 17th century. By the conquest of Whydah the
Dahomeyans were brought in contact with a people of serpent
worshippers, and ended by adopting from them the cult which
they at first despised. At Whydah, the chief centre, there is a
serpent temple, tenanted by some fifty snakes; every python
of the danh-gbi kind must be treated with respect, and death is
the penalty for killing one, even by accident. Danh-gbi has
numerous wives, who until 1857 took part in a public procession
from which the profane crowd was excluded ; a python was
carried round the town in a hammock, perhaps as a ceremony
for the expulsion of evils. The rainbow-god of the Ewe was also
conceived to have the form of a snake; his messenger was said
to be a small variety of boa; but only certain individuals, not
the whole species, were sacred. In many parts of Africa the
serpent is looked upon as the incarnation of deceased relatives;
among the Amazulu, as among the Bctsilco of Madagascar,

certain species are assigned as the abode of certain classes; the
Masai, on the other hand, regard each species as the habitat of a
particular family of the tribe.

In America some of the Amerindian tribes reverence the
rattlesnake as grandfather and king of snakes who is able to
give fair winds or cause tempest. Among the Hopi (Moqui) of
Arizona the serpent figures largely in one of the dances. The
rattlesnake was worshipped in the Natchez temple of the sun;
and the Aztec deity Quetzalcoatl was a serpent-god. The tribes
of Peru are said to have adored great snakes in the pre-Inca
days; and in Chile the Araucanians made a serpent figure in
their deluge myth.

Over a large part of India there are carved representations of
cobras (Nagas) or stones as substitutes; to these human food
and flowers are offered and lights are burned before the shrines.
Among the Dravidians a cobra which is accidentally killed is
burned like a human being; no one would kill one intentionally;
the serpent-god's image is carried in an annual procession by a
celibate priestess.

Serpent cults were well known in ancient Europe; there does
not, it is true, appear to be much ground for supposing that
Aesculapius was a serpent-god in spite of his connexion with
serpents. On the other hand, we learn from Herodotus of the
great serpent which defended the citadel of Athens; the Roman
genius loci took the form of a serpent; a snake was kept and
fed with milk in the temple of Potrimpos, an old Slavonic god.
To this day there are numerous traces in popular belief, especially
in Germany, of respect for the snake, which seems to be a survival
of ancestor worship, such as still exists among the Zulus and
other savage tribes; the " house-snake," as it is called, cares
for the cows and the children, and its appearance is an omen of
death, and the life of a pair of house-snakes is often held to be
bound up with that of the master -and mistress themselves.
Tradition says that one of the Gnostic sects known as the
Ophites caused a tame serpent to coil round the sacramental
bread and worshipped it as the representative of the Saviour.
See also Serpent- Worship.

Sheep. — Only in Africa do we find a sheep-god proper; Ammon
was the god of Thebes; he was represented as ram-headed;
his worshippers held the ram to be sacred; it was, however,
sacrificed once a year, and its fleece formed the clothing of the
idol.

Tiger. — The tiger is associated with Siva and Durga, but its
cult is confined to the wilder tribes; in Nepal the tiger festival
is known as Bagh Jatra, and the worshippers dance disguised as
tigers. The Waralis worship Waghia the lord of tigers in the
form of a shapeless stone. In Hanoi and Manchuria tiger-gods
are also found.

Wolf. — Both Zeus and Apollo were associated with the wolf
by the Greeks; but it is not clear that this implies a previous
cult of the wolf. It is frequently found among the tutelary
deities of North American dancing or secret societies. The
Thlinkits had a god, Khanukh, whose name means " wolf," and
worshipped a wolf-headed image.

Authorities. — For a fuller discussion and full references to these
and other cults, that of the serpent excepted, see N. W. Thomas in
Hastings' Dictionary of Religions; Frazer, Golden Bough; Camp-
bell's Spirit Basis of Belief and Custom; Maclennan's Studies (series
2) ; V. Gennep, Tabou et totemisme a. Madagascar. For the serpent,
see Ellis, Ewe-speaking Peoples, p. 54; Internat. Archiv, xvii. 113;
Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii. 239; Fergusson, Tree and Serpent
Worship; Mahly, Die Schlange im Mythus; Staniland Wake,
Serpent Worship, &c; j6th Annual Report of the American Bureau
of Ethnology, p. 273, and bibliography, p. 312. For the bull, &c, in
Egypt, see Egypt: Religion. (N. W. T.)

ANIMfi, an oleo-resin (said to be so called because in its
natural state it is infested with insects) which is exuded from the
locust tree, Hymenaea coumaril, and other species of Hymenaea
growing in tropical South America. It is of a pale brown colour,
transparent, brittle, and in consequence of its agreeable odour
is used for fumigation and in perfumery. Its specific gravity
varies from 1-054 to 1-057. It melts readily over the fire, and
softens even with the heat of the mouth; it is insoluble in
water, and nearly so in cold alcohol. It is allied to copal in its

ANIMISM

nature and appearance, and is much used by varnish-makers.
The name is also given to Zanzibar copal (q.v.).

ANIMISM (from animus, or anima, mind or soul), according
to the definition of Dr E. B. Tylor, the doctrine of spiritual beings,
including human souls; in practice, however,, the term is often
extended to include panthelism or animatism, the doctrine that
a great part, if not the whole, of the inanimate kingdom, as well
as all animated beings, are endowed with reason, intelligence
and volition, identical with that of man. This latter theory,
which in many cases is equivalent to personification, though it
may be, like animism, a feature of the philosophy of peoples of
low culture, should not be confused with it. But it is difficult
in practice to distinguish the two phases of thought and no clear
account of animatism can yet be given, largely on the ground
that no people has yet been discovered which has not already
developed to a greater or less extent an animistic philosophy.
On theoretical grounds it is probable that animatism preceded
animism; but savage thought is no more consistent than that
of civilized man; and it may well be that animisti* and panthe-
istic doctrines are held simultaneously by the same person. In
like manner one portion of the savage explanation of nature may
have been originally animistic, another part animatistic.

Origin. — Animism may have arisen out of or simultaneously
with animatism as a primitive explanation of many different
phenomena; if animatism was originally applied to non-human
or inanimate objects, animism may from the outset have been in
vogue as a theory of the nature of man. Lists of phenomena
from the contemplation of which the savage was led to believe
in animism have been given by Dr Tylor, Herbert Spencer,
Mr Andrew Lang and others; an animated controversy arose
between the former as to the priority of their respective lists.
Among these phenomena are: trance (q.v.) and unconsciousness,
sickness, death, clairvoyance (q.v.), dreams (q.v.), apparitions
(q.v.) of the dead, wraiths, hallucinations (q.v.), echoes, shadows
and reflections.

Primitive ideas on the subject of the soul, and at the same time
the origin of them, are best illustrated by an analysis of the terms
applied to it. Readers of Dante know the idea that the dead
have no shadows; this was no invention of the poet's but a
piece of traditionary lore; at the present day among the Basutos
it is held that a man walking by the brink of a river may lose
his life if his shadow falls on the water, for a crocodile may seize
it and draw him in; in Tasmania, North and South America
and classical Europe is found the conception that the soul — auk,
umbra — is somehow identical with the shadow of a man. More
familiar to the Anglo-Saxon race is the connexion between the
soul and the breath ; this identification is found both in Aryan and
Semitic languages; in Latin we have spirilus, in Greek pneuma,
in Hebrew ruach; and the idea is found extending downwards
to the lowest planes of culture in Australia, America and Asia.
For some of the Red Indians the Roman custom of receiving the
breath of a dying man was no mere pious duty but a means of
ensuring that his soul was transferred to a new body. Other
familiar conceptions identify the soul with the liver (see Omen)
or the heart, with the reflected figure seen in the pupil of the eye,
and with the blood. Although the soul is often distinguished from
the vital principle, there are many cases in which a state of
unconsciousness is explained as due to the absence of the soul;
in South Australia wilyamarraba (without soul) is the word used
for insensible. So too the autohypnotic trance of the magician
or shaman is regarded as due to his visit to distant regions or the
nether world, of which he brings back an account. Telepathy or
clairvoyance (q.v.), with or without trance, must have operated
powerfully to produce a conviction of the dual nature of man,
for it seems probable that facts unknown to the automatist are
sometimes discovered by means of crystal-gazing (q.v.), which
is widely found among savages, as among civilized peoples.
Sickness is often explained as due to the absence of the soul;
and means are sometimes taken to lure back the wandering soul;
when a Chinese is at the point of death and his soul is supposed
to have already left his body, the patient's coat is held up on a
long bamboo while a priest endeavours to bringthe departed spirit

back into the coat by means of incantations. If the bamboo
begins to turn round in the hands of the relative who is deputed
to hold it, it is regarded as a sign that the soul of the moribund
has returned (see Automatism). More important perhaps than
all these phenomena, because more regular and normal, was the
daily period of sleep with its frequent concomitant of fitful and
incoherent ideas and images. The mere immobility of the body
was sufficient to show that its state was not identical with that
of waking; when, in addition, the sleeper awoke to give an
account of visits to distant lands, from which, as modern
psychical investigations suggest, he may even have brought back
veridical details, the conclusion must have been irresistible
that in sleep something journeyed forth, which was not the body.
In a minor degree revival of memory during sleep and similar
phenomena of the sub-conscious life may have contributed to
the same result. Dreams are sometimes explained by savages
as journeys performed by the sleeper, sometimes as visits paid
by other persons, by animals or objects to him; hallucinations,
possibly more frequent in the lower stages of culture, must have
contributed to fortify this interpretation, and the animistic
theory in general. Seeing the phantasmic figures of friends at
the moment when they were, whether at the point of death or
in good health, many miles distant, must have led the savage
irresistibly to the dualistic theory. But hallucinatory figures,
both in dreams and waking life, are not necessarily those of the
living; from the reappearance of dead friends or enemies
primitive man was inevitably led to the belief that there existed
an incorporeal part of man which survived the dissolution of the
body. The soul was conceived to be a facsimile of the body,
sometimes no less material, sometimes more subtle but yet
material, sometimes altogether impalpable and intangible.

Animism and Eschatology. — The psychological side of animism
has already been dealt with; almost equally important in
primitive creeds is the eschatological aspect. In many parts of
the world it is held that the human body is the seat of more than
one soul; in the island of Nias four are distinguished, the shadow
and the intelligence, which die with the body, a tutelary spirit,
termed begoe, and a second which is carried on the head. Similar
ideas are found among the Euahlayi of S.E. Australia, the
Dakotas and many other tribes. Just as in Europe the ghost
of a dead person is held to haunt the churchyard or the place of
death, although more orthodox ideas may be held and enunciated
by the same person as to the nature of a future life, so the savage,
more consistently, assigns different abodes to the multiple souls
with which he credits man. Of the four souls of a Dakota, one
is held to stay with the corpse, another in the village, a third goes
into the air, while the fourth goes to the land of souls, where its
lot may depend on its rank in this life, its sex, mode of death
or sepulture, on the due observance of funeral ritual, or manyother
points (see Eschatology) . From the belief in the survival of the
dead arose the practice of offering food, lighting fires, &c, at the
grave, at first, maybe, as an act of friendship or filial piety,
later as an act of worship (see Ancestor Worship) . The simple
offering of food or shedding of blood at the grave develops into
an elaborate system of sacrifice; even where ancestor- worship
is not found, the desire to provide the dead with comforts in the
future life may lead to the sacrifice of wives, slaves, animals, &c,
to the breaking or burning of objects at the grave or to the
provision of the ferryman's toll, a coin put in the mouth of the
corpse to pay the travelling expenses of the soul. But all is not
finished with the passage of the soul to the land of the dead ;
the soul may return to avenge its death by helping to discover
the murderer, or to wreak vengeance for itself; there is a wide-
spread belief that those who die a violent death become malignant
spirits and endanger the lives of those who come near the haunted
spot; the woman who dies in child-birth becomes a pontianak,
and threatens the life of human beings; and man resorts to
magical or religious means of repelling his spiritual dangers.

Development of Animism. — If the phenomena of dreams were,
as suggested above, of great importance for the development of
animism, the belief, which must originally have been a doctrine
of human psychology, cannot have failed to expand speedily into

ANIMISM

a general philosophy of nature. Not only human beings but
animals and objects are seen in dreams; and the conclusion
would be that they too have souls; the same conclusion may have
been reached by another line of argument; primitive psychology
posited a spirit in a man to account, amongst other things, for his
actions; a natural explanation of the changes in the external
world would be that they are due to the operations and volitions
of spirits.

Animal Souls. — But apart from considerations of this sort, it is
probable that animals must, early in the history of animistic
beliefs, have been regarded as possessing souls. Education has
brought with it a sense of the great gulf between man and animals ;
but in the lower stages of culture this distinction is not adequately
recognized, if indeed it is recognized at all. The savage attributes
to animals the same ideas, the same mental processes as himself,
and at the same time vastly greater power and cunning. The dead
animal is credited with a knowledge of how its remains are treated
and sometimes with a power of taking vengeance on the fortunate
hunter. Powers of reasoning are not denied to animals nor even
speech; the silence of the brute creation may be put down to
their superior cunning. We may assume that man attributed a
soul to the beasts of the field almost as soon as he claimed one for
himself. It is therefore not surprising to find that many peoples
on the lower planes of culture respect and even worship animals
(see Totem; Animal Worship); though we need not attribute
an animistic origin to all the develooments, it is clear that the
widespread respect paid to animals as the abode of dead ancestors,
and much of the cult of dangerous animals, is traceable to this
principle. With the rise of species, deities and the cult of in-
dividual animals, the path towards anthropomorphization and
polytheism is opened and the respect paid to animals tends to lose
its strict animistic character.

Plant Souls. — Just as human souls are assigned to animals, so
primitive man often credits trees and plants with souls in both
human or animal form. All over the world agricultural peoples
practise elaborate ceremonies explicable, as Mannhardt has
shown, on animistic principles. In Europe the corn spirit some-
times immanent in the crop, sometimes a presiding deity whose
life does not depend on that of the growing corn, is conceived in
some districts in the form of an ox, hare or cock, in others as an
old man or woman ; in the East Indies and America the rice or
maize mother is a corresponding figure ;-in classical Europe and
the East we have in Ceres and Demeter, Adonis and Dionysus,
and other deities, vegetation gods whose origin we can readily
trace back to the rustic corn spirit. Forest trees, no less than
cereals, have their indwelling spirits; the fauns and satyrs of
classical literature were goat-footed and the tree spirit of the
Russian peasantry takes the form of a goat; in Bengal and the
East Indies wood-cutters endeavour to propitiate the spirit of the
tree which they cut down ; and in many parts of the world trees
are regarded as the abode of the spirits of the dead. Just as a
process of syncretism has given rise to cults of animal gods, tree
spirits tend to become detached from the trees, which are thence-
forward only their abodes; and here again animism has begun to
pass into polytheism.

Object Souls. — We distinguish between animate and inanimate
nature, but this classification has no meaning for the savage. The
river speeding on its course to the sea, the sun and moon, if not
the stars also, on their never-ceasing daily round, the lightning,
fire, the wind, the sea, all are in motion and therefore animate;
but the savage does not stop short here; mountains and lakes,
stones and manufactured articles, are for him alike endowed with
souls like his own; he deposits in the tomb weapons and food,
clothes and implements, broken, it may be, in order to set free
their souls; or he attains the same result by burning them, and
thus sending them to the Other World for the use of the dead man.
Here again, though to a less extent than in tree cults, the
theriomorphic aspect recurs; in the north of Europe, in ancient
Greece, in China, the water or river spirit is horse or bull-shaped;
the water monster in serpent shape is even more widely found,
but it is less strictly the spirit of the water. The spirit of syn-
cretism manifests itself in this department of animism too; the

immanent spirit of the earlier period becomes the presiding genius
or local god of later times, and with the rise of the doctrine of
separable souls we again reach the confines of animism pure and
simple.

Spirits in Genera/.— Side by side with the doctrine of separable
souls with which we have so far been concerned, exists the belief
in a great host of unattached spirits; these are not immanent souls
which have become detached from their abodes, but have every
appearance of independent spirits. Thus, anirriism is in some
directions little developed, so far as we can see, among the
Australian aborigines; but from those who know them best we
learn that they believe in innumerable spirits and bush bogies,
which wander, especially at night, and can be held at bay by
means of fire; with this belief may be compared the ascription
in European folk belief of prophylactic properties to iron. These
spirits are at first mainly malevolent; and side by side with them
we find the spirits of the dead as hostile beings. At a higher stage
the spirits of dead kinsmen are no longer unfriendly, nor yet all
non -human spirits; as fetishes (see Fetishism), naguals (see
Totem) , familiars, gods or demi-gods (for which and the general
question see Demonology), they enter into relations with man.
On the other hand there still subsists a belief in innumerable evil
spirits, which manifest themselves in the phenomena of possession
(q.v.), lycanthropy (q.v.), disease, &c. The fear of evil spirits has
given rise to ceremonies of expulsion of evils (see Exorcism),
designed to banish them from the community.

Animism and Religion. — Animism is commonly described as
the most primitive form of religion; but properly speaking it is
not a religion at all, for religion implies, at any rate, some form of
emotion (see Religion), and animism is in the first instance an
explanation of phenomena rather than an attitude of mind toward
the cause of them, a philosophy rather than a religion. The term
may, however, be conveniently used to describe the early stage
of religion in which man endeavours to set up relations between
himself and the unseen powers, conceived as spirits, but differing
in many particulars from the gods of polytheism. As an example
of this stage in one of its aspects may be taken the European belief
in the corn spirit, which is, however, the object of magical rather
than religious rites; Dr Frazer has thus defined the character of
the animistic pantheon, " they are restricted in their operations
to definite departments of nature; their names are general, not
proper; their attributes are generic rather than individual; in
other words, there is an indefinite number of spirits of each class,
and the individuals of a class are much alike; they have no
definitely marked individuality; no accepted traditions are
current as to their origin, life and character." This stage of
religion is well illustrated by the Red Indian custom of offering
sacrifice to certain rocks, or whirlpools, or to the indwelling spirits
connected with them; the rite is only performed in the neighbour-
hood of the object, it is an incident of a canoe or other voyage, and
is not intended to secure any benefits beyond a safe passage past
the object in question ; the spirit to be propitiated has a purely
local sphere of influence, and powers of a very limited nature.
Animistic in many of their features too are the temporary gods of
fetishism (q.v.), naguals or familiars, genii and even the dead who
receive a cult. With the rise of a belief in departmental gods
comes the age of polytheism ; the belief in elemental spirits may
still persist, but they fall into the background and receive no cult.

Animism and the Origin of Religion. — Two animistic theories of
the origin of religion have been put forward, the one, often termed
the " ghost theory," mainly associated with the name of Herbert
Spencer, but also maintained by Grant Allen, refers the beginning
of religion to the cult of dead human beings; the other, put
forward by Dr E. B. Tylor, makes the foundation of all religion
animistic, but recognizes the non-human character of polytheistic
gods. Although ancestor-worship, or, more broadly, the cult of
the dead, has in many cases overshadowed other cults or even
extinguished them, we have no warrant, even in these cases, for
asserting its priority, but rather. the reverse; not only so, but
in the majority of cases the pantheon is made up by a multitude
of spirits in human, sometimes in animal form, which bear no signs
of ever having been incarnate; sun gods and moon goddesses,

ANIMUCCIA— ANJOU

gods of fire, wind and water, gods of the sea, and above all gods of
the sky, show no signs of having been ghost gods at any period
in their history. They may, it is true, be associated with ghost
gods, but in Australia it cannot even be asserted that the gods
are spirits at all, much less that they are the spirits of dead men;
they are simply magnified magicians, super-men who have never
died; we have no ground, therefore, for regarding the cult of the
dead as the origin of religion in this area; this conclusion is the
more probable, as ancestor-worship and the cult of the dead
generally cannot be said to exist in Australia.

The more general view that polytheistic and other gods are the
elemental and other spirits of the later stages of animistic creeds,
is equally inapplicable to Australia, where the belief seems to be
neither animistic nor even animatistic in character. But we are
hardly justified in arguing from the case of Australia to a general
conclusion as to the origin of religious ideas in all other parts of
the world. It is perhaps safest to say that the science of religions
has no data on which to go, in formulating conclusions as to the
original form of the objects of religious emotion; in this connexion
it must be remembered that not only is it very difficult to get
precise information of the subject of the religious ideas of people
of low culture, perhaps for the simple reason that the ideas
themselves are far from precise, but also that, as has been pointed
out above, the conception of spiritual often approximates very
closely to that of material. Where the soul is regarded as no
more than a finer sort of matter, it will obviously be far from easy
to decide whether the gods are spiritual or material. Even,
therefore, if we can say that at the present day the gods are
entirely spiritual, it is clearly possible to maintain that they
have been spiritualized pari passu with the increasing importance
of the animistic view of nature and of the greater prominence of
eschatological beliefs. The animistic origin of religion is therefore
not proven.

Animism and Mythology. — But little need be said on the
relation of animism and mythology (q.v.). While a large part
of mythology has an animistic basis, it is possible to believe,
e.g. in a sky world, peopled by corporeal beings, as well as by
spirits of the dead; the latter may even be entirely absent;
the mythology of the Australians relates largely to corporeal,
non-spiritual beings; stories of transformation, deluge and
doom myths, or myths of the origin of death, have not necessarily
any animistic basis. At the same time, with the rise of ideas as
to a future life and spiritual beings, this field of mythology is
immensely widened, though it cannot be said that a rich mytho-
logy is necessarily genetically associated with or combined with
belief in many spiritual beings.

Animism in Philosophy. — The term " animism " has been
applied to many different philosophical systems. It is used to
describe Aristotle's view of the relation of soul and body held
also by the Stoics and Scholastics. On the other hand
monadology (Leibnitz) has also been termed animistic. The
name is most commonly applied to vitalism, a view mainly
associated with G. E. Stahl and revived by F. Bouillier (1813-
1899), which makes life, or life and mind, the directive principle
in evolution and growth, holding that all cannot be traced back
to chemical and mechanical processes, but that there is a directive
force which guides energy without altering its amount. An
entirely different class of ideas, also termed animistic, is the
belief in the world soul, held by Plato, Schelling and others.

Bibliography. — Tylor, Primitive Culture; Frazer, Golden Bough;
Id. on Burial Customs in /. A. I. xv. ; Mannhardt, Baumkultus;
G. A. Wilken, Het Animisme; Koch on the animism of S. America
in Internationales Archiv, xiii., Suppl. ; Andrew Lang, Making of
Religion; Skeat, Malay Magic; Sir G. Campbell, "Spirit Basis of
Belief and Custom," in Indian Antiquary, xxiii. and succeeding
volumes; Folklore, iii. 289. xi. 162; Spencer, Principles of Socio-
logy; Mind (1877), 141, 415 et seq. For animism in philosophy,
Stahl, Theoria ; Bouillier, Du Principe vital. (N. W. T.)

ANIMUCCIA, GIOVANNI, Italian musical composer, was born
at Florence in the last years of the 1 5th century. At the request
of St Filippo Neri he composed a number of Laudi, or hymns
of praise, to be sung after sermon time, which have given him
an accidental prominence in musical history, since their per-

formance in St Filippo's Oratory eventually gave rise (on the
disruption of 16th century schools of composition) to those early
forms of " oratorio " that are not traceable to the Gregorian-
polyphonic " Passions." St Filippo admired Animuccia s>o
warmly that he declared he had seen the soul of his friend fly
upwards towards heaven. In 1555 Animuccia was appointed
maestro di capella at St Peter's, an office which he held until his
death in 1571. He was succeeded by Palestrina, who had been
his friend and probably his pupil. The manuscript of many of
Animuccia's compositions is still preserved in the Vatican
Library. His chief published works were Madrigali e Motetti a
quattro e cinque voci (Ven. 1548) and 77 primo Libro di Messe
(Rom. 1567). From the latter Padre Martini has taken two
specimens for his Saggio di Contrapunto. A mass from the
Primo Libro di Messe on the canto fermo of the hymn Condilor
alme siderum is published in modern notation in the Anthologie
des maitres religieux primitifs of the Chanteurs de Saint Gervais.
It is solemn and noble in conception, and would be a great work
but for a roughness which is more careless than archaic.

Paolo Animuccia, a brother of Giovanni, was also celebrated
as a composer; he is said by Fetis to have been maestro di
capella at S. Giovanni in Laterano from the middle of January
1550 until 1552, and to have died in 1563.

ANISE (Pimpinella Anisum), an umbelliferous plant found in
Egypt and the Levant, and cultivated on the continent of Europe
for medicinal purposes. The officinal part of the plant is the
fruit, which consists of two united carpels, called a cremocarp.
It is known by the' name of aniseed, and has a strong aromatic
taste and a powerful odour. By distillation the fruit yields the
volatile oil of anise, which is useful in the treatment of flatulence
and colic in children. It may be given as Aqua Anisi, in doses of
one or more ounces, or as the Spiritus Anisi, in doses of 5-20
minims. The main constituent of the oil (up to 90 %) is anethol,
C, H 12 O or CsHji^KOCHsXCHiCH-CIL.) It- also contains
methyl chavicol, anisic aldehyde, anisic acid, and' a terpene.
Most of the oil of commerce, however, of which anethol is also
the chief constituent , comes from Jllicium verum (order Magno-
liaceae, sub-order Wintereae), indigenous in N.E. China, the
star-anise of liqueur makers. It receives its name from its
flavour, and from its fruit spreading out like a star. The anise of
the Bible (Matt, xxiii. 23) is Anethum or Peucedanum graveolens,
i.e. dill (q.v.).

ANJAR, a fortified town of India, and the capital of a district
of the same name in the native state of Cutch, in the presidency
of Bombay. The country is dry and sandy, and entirely depends
on well irrigation for its water supply. The town is situated
nearly 10 miles from the Gulf of Cutch. It suffered severely
from an earthquake in 181 9, which destroyed a large number of
houses, and occasioned the loss of several lives. In 1901 the
population was 18,014. The town and district of Anjar were
both ceded to the British in 1816, but in 1822 they were again
transferred to the Cutch government in consideration of an
annual money payment. Subsequently it was discovered that
this obligation pressed heavily upon the resources of the native
state, and in 1832 the pecuniary equivalent for Anjar, both
prospectively and inclusive of the arrears which had accrued to
that date, was wholly remitted by the British government.

ANJOU, the old name of a French territory, the political
origin of which is traced to the ancient Gallic state of the Andes,
on the lines of which was organized, after the conquest by
Julius Caesar, the Roman civitas of the Andecavi. This was
afterwards preserved as an administrative district under the
Franks with the name first of pagus, then of comitatus, or count-
ship of Anjou. This countship, the extent of which seems to
have been practically identical with that of the ecclesiastical
diocese of Angers, occupied the greater part of what is now the
department of Maine-et-Loire, further embracing, to the north,
Craon, Bazouges (Chateau-Gontier), Le Lude, and to the east,
Chateau-la- Valliere and Bourgueil, while to the south, on the
other hand, it included neither the present town of Montreuil-
Bellay, nor Vihiers, Cholet, Beaupreau, nor the whole district
lying to the west of the Ironne and Thouet, on the left bank of

ANJOU

the Loire, which formed the territory of the Mauges. It was
bounded on the north by the countship of Maine, on the east
by that of Touraine, on the south by that of Poitiers and by
the Mauges, on the west by the countship of Nantes.

From the outset of the reign of Charles the Bald, the integrity
of Anjou was seriously menaced by a two-fold danger: from
Brittany and from Normandy. Lambert, a former count of
Nantes, after devastating Anjou in concert with Nominoe, duke
of Brittany, had by the end of the year 851 succeeded in occupy-
ing all the western part as far as the Mayenne. The principality,
which he thus carved out for himself, was occupied, on his death,
by Erispoe, duke of Brittany; by him it was handed down to
his successors, in whose hands it remained till the beginning
of the 10th century. All this time the Normans had not ceased
ravaging the country; a brave man was needed to defend it,
and finally towards 861, Charles the Bald entrusted it to Robert
the Strong (q.v.), but he unfortunately met with his death in
866 in a battle against the Normans at Brissarthe. Hugh
the Abbot succeeded him in the countship of Anjou as in most
of his other duties, and on his death (886) it passed to Odo (q.v.),
the eldest son of Robert the Strong, who, on his accession to
the throne of France (888) , probably handed it over to his brother
Robert. In any case, during the last years of the 9th century,
in Anjou as elsewhere the power was delegated to a viscount,
Fulk the Red (mentioned under this title after 898), son of a
certain Ingelgerius.

In the second quarter of the 10th century Fulk the Red
had already usurped the title of count, which his descendants
kept for three centuries. He was succeeded first by his son
Fulk II. the Good (941 or 942-c. 960), and then by the son of
the latter, Geoffrey I. Grisegonelle (Grey tunic) (c. 960-2 1st of
July 987), who inaugurated a policy of expansion, having as
its objects the extension of the boundaries of the ancient count-
ship and the -reconquest of those parts of it which had been
annexed by the neighbouring states; for, though western Anjou
had been recovered from the dukes of Brittany since the begin-
ning of the 10th century, in the east all the district of Saumur
had already by that time fallen into the hands of the counts
of Blois and Tours. Geoffrey Greytunic succeeded in making
the count of Nantes his vassal, and in obtaining from the duke
of Aquitaine the concession in fief of the district of Loudun.
Moreover, in the wars of king Lothaire against the Normans
and against the emperor Otto II. he distinguished himself by
feats of arms which the epic poets were quick to celebrate. His
son Fulk III. Nerra (q.v.) (21st of July 98 7- 21st of June 1040)
found himself confronted on his accession with a coalition of
Odo I., count of Blois, and ConanI.,count of Rennes. The latter
having seized upon Nantes, of which the counts of Anjou held
themselves to be suzerains, Fulk Nerra came and laid siege to it,
routing Conan's army at Conquereuil (27th of June 992) and
re-establishing Nantes under his own suzerainty. Then turning
his attention to the count of Blois, he proceeded to establish
a fortress at Langeais, a few miles from Tours, from which,
thanks to the intervention of the king Hugh Capet, Odo failed
to oust him. On the death of Odo I., Fulk seized Tours (996);
but King Robert the Pious turned against him and took the town
again (997). In 1016 a fresh struggle arose between Fulk and
Odo II., the new count of Blois. Odo II. was utterly defeated
at Pontlevoy (6th of July 1016), and a few years later, while
Odo was besieging Montboyau, Fulk surprised and took Saumur
(1026). Finally, the victory gained by Geoffrey Martel (q.v.)
(21st of June i040-i4th of November 1060), the son and successor
of Fulk, over Theobald III., count of Blois, at Nouy (21st of
August 1044), assured to the Angevins the possession of the
countship of Touraine. At the same time, continuing in this
quarter also the work of his father (who in 1025 took prisoner
Herbert Wake-Dog and only set him free on condition of his
doing him homage), Geoffrey succeeded in reducing the countship
of Maine to complete dependence on himself. During his father's
life-time he had been beaten by Gervais, bishop of Le Mans
(1038), but now (1047 or 1048) succeeded in taking the latter
prisoner, for which he was excommunicated by Pope Leo IX.

at the council of Reims (October 1049). In spite, however,
of the concerted attacks of William the Bastard (the Conqueror),
duke of Normandy, and Henry I., king of France, he was able
in 105 1 to force Maine to recognize his authority, though failing
to revenge himself on William.

On the death of Geoffrey Martel (14th of November 1060) there
was a dispute as to the succession. Geoffrey Martel, having no
children, had bequeathed the countship to his eldest nephew,
Geoffrey III. the Bearded, son of Geoffrey, count of Gatinais,
and of Ermengarde, daughter of Fulk Nerra. But Fulk le
Rechin (the Cross-looking), brother of Geoffrey the Bearded,
who had at first been contented with an appanage consisting of
Saintonge and the chdlcllenie of Vihiers, having allowed Saintonge
to be taken in 1062 by the duke of Aquitaine, took advantage
of the general discontent aroused in the countship by the unskilful
policy of Geoffrey to make himself master of Saumur (25th of
February 1067) and Angers (4th of April), and cast Geoffrey
into prison at Sable. Compelled by the papal authority to release
him after a short interval and to restore the countship to him,
he soon renewed the struggle, beat Geoffrey near Brissac and
shut him up in the castle of Chinon (1068). In order, however,
to obtain his recognition as count, Fulk IV. Rechin (io68-i4th
of April 1 109) had to carry on a long struggle with his barons,
to cede Gatinais to King Philip I., and to do homage to the count
of Blois for Touraine. On the other hand, he was successful
on the whole in pursuing the policy of Geoffrey Martel in Maine:
after destroying La Fleche, by the peace of Blanchelande (1081),
he received the homage of Robert " Courteheuse " (" Curthose "),
son of William the Conqueror, for Maine. Later, he upheld Elias,
lord of La Fleche, against William Rufus, king of England,
and on the recognition of Elias as count of Maine in 1100,
obtained for Fulk the Young, his son by Bertrade de Montfort,
the hand of Eremburge, Elias's daughter and sole heiress.

Fulk V. the Young (14th of April 1109-1129) succeeded to the
countship of Maine on the death of Elias (nth of July mo);
but this increase of Angevin territory came into such direct
collision with the interests of Henry I., king of England, who was
also duke of Normandy, that a struggle between the two powers
became inevitable. In 1 1 1 2 it broke out, and Fulk, being unable
to prevent Henry I. from taking Alencon and making Robert,
lord of Belleme, prisoner, was forced, at the treaty of Pierre
Pecoulee, near Alencon (23rd of February 1113), to do homage
to Henry for Maine. In revenge for this, while Louis VI. was
overrunning the Vexin in n 18, he routed Henry's army at
Alencon (November), and in May n 19 Henry demanded a peace,
which was sealed in June by the marriage of his eldest son,
William the Aetheling, with Matilda, Fulk's daughter. William
the Aetheling having perished in the wreck of the " White
Ship " (25th of November 1120), Fulk, on his return from a
pilgrimage to the Holy Land (1120-1121), married his second
daughter Sibyl, at the instigation of Louis VI., to William Clito,
son of Robert Courteheuse, and a claimant to the duchy of
Normandy, giving her Maine for a dowry (n 22 or 1123). Henry
I. managed to have the marriage annulled, on the plea of kinship
between the parties (1123 or 1124). But in 11 27 a new alliance
was made, and on the 22nd of May at Rouen, Henry I. betrothed
his daughter Matilda, widow of the emperor Henry V., to
Geoffrey the Handsome, son of Fulk, the marriage being cele-
brated at Le Mans on the 2nd of June 1 1 29. Shortly after, on
the invitation of Baldwin II., king of Jerusalem, Fulk departed
to the Holy Land for good, married Melisinda, Baldwin's daughter
and heiress, and succeeded to the throne of Jerusalem (14th of
September 1131). His eldest son, Geoffrey IV. the Handsome
or " Plantagenet," succeeded him as count of Anjou (n 29-
7th of September 1151). From the first he tried to profit by his
marriage, and after the death of Henry I. (1st of December 1135),
laid the foundation of the conquest of Normandy by a series of
campaigns: about the end of 113 5 or the beginning of n 36 he
entered that country and rejoined his wife, the countess "Blatilda,
who had received the submission of Argentan, Domfront and
Exmes. Having been abruptly recalled into Anjou by a revolt
of his barons, he returned to the charge in September 1136 witha

ANJOU

strong army, including in its ranks William, duke of Aquitaine,
Geoffrey, count of Vendome, and William Talvas, count of
Ponthieu, but after a few successes was wounded in the foot at
the siege of Le Sap (October i) and had to fall back. In May
1137 began a fresh campaign in which he devastated the district
of Hiemois (round Exmes) and burnt Bazoches. In June 1138,
with the aid of Robert of Gloucester, Geoffrey obtained the
submission of Bayeux and Caen; in October he devastated the
neighbourhood of Falaise; finally, in March 1 141, on hearing of
his wife's success in England, he again entered Normandy, when
he made a triumphal procession through the country. Town
after town surrendered: in 1141, Verneuil, Nonancourt, Lisieux,
Falaise; in 1142, Mortain, Saint-Hilaire, Pontorson; in 1143,
Avranches, Saint-L6, Cerences, Coutances, Cherbourg; in the
beginning of 1144 he entered Rouen, and on the 19th of January
received the ducal crown in its cathedral. Finally, in 1149, after
crushing a last attempt at revolt, he handed over the duchy to
his son Henry " Curtmantel," who received the investiture at the
hands of the king of France.

All the while that Fulk the Young and Geoffrey the Handsome
were carrying on the work of extending the countship of Anjou,
they did not neglect to strengthen their authority at home, to
which the unruliness of the barons was a menace. As regards
Fulk the Young we know only a few isolated facts and dates:
about 1109 Doue and L'lle Bouchard were taken; in 1112
Brissac was besieged, and about the same time Eschivard of
Preuilly subdued; in n 14 there was a general war against the
barons who were in revolt, and in rn8 a fresh rising, which was
put down after the siege of Montbazon; in n 23 the lord of Doue
revolted, and in n 24 Montreuil-Bellay was taken after a siege
of nine weeks. Geoffrey the Handsome, with his indefatigable
energy, was eminently fitted to suppress the coalitions of his
vassals, the most formidable of which was formed in n 29.
Among those who revolted were Guy of Laval, Giraud of Mon-
treuil-Bellay, the viscount of Thouars, the lords of Mirebeau,
Amboise, Partbenay and Sable. Geoffrey succeeded in beating
them one after another, razed the keep of Thouars and occupied
Mirebeau. Another rising was crushed in 1 134 by the destruction
of Cande and the taking of L'lle Bouchard. In 1136, while the
count was in Normandy, Robert of Sable put himself at the head
of the movement, to which Geoffrey responded by destroying
Briollay and occupying La Suze, and Robert of Sable himself
was forced to beg humbly for pardon through the intercession of
the bishop of Angers. In 1 1391 Geoffrey took Mirebeau, and in
1 142 Champtoceaux, but in ri45 a new revolt broke out, this
time under the leadership of Elias, the count's own brother,
who, again with the assistance of Robert of Sable, laid claim to
the countship of Maine. Geoffrey took Elias prisoner, forced
Robert of Sable to beat a retreat, and reduced the other barons
to reason. In 1147 he destroyed Doue and Blaison. Finally
in 1 1 50 he was checked by the revolt of Giraud, lord of
Montreuil-Bellay: for a year he besieged the place till it had to
surrender; he then took Giraud prisoner and only released him
on the mediation of the king of France.

Thus, on the death of Geoffrey the Handsome (7th of Sep-
tember 1 1 51), his son Henry found himself heir to a great
empire, strong and consolidated, to which his marriage with
Eleanor of Aquitaine (May 1152) further added Aquitaine.

At length on the death of King Stephen, Henry was recognised
as king of England (19th of December 1154). But then his
brother Geoffrey, who had received as appanage the three
fortresses of Chinon, Loudun and Mirebeau, tried to seize upon
Anjou, on the pretext that, by the will of their father, Geoffrey
the Handsome, all the paternal inheritance ought to descend to
him, if Henry succeeded in obtaining possession of the maternal
inheritance. On hearing of this, Henry, although he had sworn
• to observe this will, had himself released from his oath by the
pope, and hurriedly marched against his brother, from whom in
the beginning of 1 1 56 he succeeded in taking Chinon and Mire-
beau; and in July he forced Geoffrey to give up even his three
fortresses in return for an annual pension. Henceforward Henry
succeeded in keeping the countship of Anjou all his life; for

though he granted it in 1168 to his son Henry "of the Short
Mantle," when the latter became old enough to govern it, he
absolutely refused to allow him to enjoy his power. After
Henry II. 's death in 1189 the countship, together with the rest
of his dominions, passed to his son Richard I. of England, but
on the death of the latter in 1199, Arthur of Brittany (born in
1 187) laid claim to the inheritance, which ought, according to
him, to have fallen to his father Geoffrey, fourth son of Henry II.,
in accordance with the custom by which " the son of the eldest
brother should succeed to his father's patrimony." He therefore
set himself up in rivalry with John Lackland, youngest son of
Henry II., and supported by Philip Augustus of France, and
aided by William des Roches, seneschal of Anjou, he managed
to enter Angers (18th of April 1199) and there have himself
recognized as count of the three countships of Anjou, Maine and
Touraine, for which he did homage to the king of France. King
John soon regained the upper hand, for Philip Augustus having
deserted Arthur by the treaty of Le Goulet (22nd of May 1200),
John made his way into Anjou; and on the 18th of June 1200
was recognized as count at Angers. In 1202 he refused to do
homage to Philip Augustus, who, in consequence, confiscated
all his continental possessions, including Anjou, which was
allotted by the king of France to Arthur. The defeat of the
latter, who was taken prisoner at Mirebeau on the 1st of August
1202, seemed to ensure John's success, but he was abandoned
by William des Roches, who in 1 203 assisted Philip Augustus in
subduing the whole of Anjou. A last effort on the part of John
to possess himself of it, in 1214, led to the taking of Angers (17th
of June) , but broke down lamentably at the battle of La Roche-
aux-Moines (2nd of July), and the countship was attached to the
crown of France.

Shortly afterwards it was separated from it again, when in
August 1246 King Louis IX. gave it as an appanage to his son
Charles, count of Provence, soon to become king of Naples and
Sicily (see Naples) . Charles I. of Anjou, engrossed with his other
dominions, gave little thought to Anjou, nor did his son Charles IL
the Lame, who succeeded him on the 7th of January 1285. On
the 1 6th of August 1 290, the latter married his daughter Margaret
to Charles of Valois, son of Philip III. the Bold, giving her Anjou
and Maine for dowry, in exchange for the kingdoms of Aragon
and Valentia and the countship of Barcelona given up by Charles.
Charles of Valois at once entered into possession of the countship
of Anjou, to which Philip IV. the Fair, in September 1297,
attached a peerage of France. On the 16th of December 1325,
Charles died, leaving Anjou to his eldest son Philip of Valois,
on whose recognition as king of France (Philip VI.) on the 1st of
April 1328, the countship of Anjou was again united to the crown.
On the 17th of February 1332, Philip VI. bestowed it on his son
John the Good, who, when he became king in turn (22nd of
August 1350), gave the countship to his second son Louis I.,
raising it to a duchy in the peerage of France by letters patent
of the 25th of October 1360. Louis I., who became in time
count of Provence and king of Naples (see Louis I . , king of Naples,)
died in 1384, and was succeeded by his son Louis II., who devoted
most of his energies to his kingdom of Naples, and left the ad-
ministration of Anjou almost entirely in the hands of his wife,
Yolande of Aragon. On his death (29th of April 1417) she took
upon herself the guardianship of their young son Louis III.,
and in her capacity of regent defended the duchy against the
English. Louis III., who also succeeded his father as king of
Naples, died on the 15th of November 1434, leaving no children.
The duchy of Anjou then passed to his cousin Rene, second son
of Louis II. and Yolande of Aragon, and king of Naples and
Sicily (see Naples).

Unlike his predecessors, who had rarely stayed long in Anjou,
Rene from 1443 onwards paid long visits to it, and his court at
Angers became one of the most brilliant in the kingdom of
France. But after the sudden death of his son John in December
1470, Rene, for reasons which are not altogether clear, decided
to move his residence to Provence and leave Anjou for good.
After making an inventory of all his possessions, he left the duchy
in October 1471, taking with him the most valuable of his

ANKERITE— ANKYLOSTOMIASIS

treasures. On .the 22nd of July 1474 he drew up a will by which
he divided the succession between his grandson Rene II. of
Lorraine and his nephew Charles II., count of Maine. On hearing
this, King Louis XL, who was the son of one of King Rene's
sisters, seeing that his expectations were thus completely
frustrated, seized the duchy of Anjou. He did not keep it very
long, but became reconciled to Rene in 1476 and restored it to
him, on condition, probably, that Rene should bequeath it to
him. However that may be, on the death of the latter (10th
of July 14S0) he again added Anjou to the royal domain.

Later, King Francis I. again gave the duchy as an appanage
to his mother, Louise of Savoy, by letters patent of the 4th of
February 151 5. On her death, in September 1531, the duchy
returned into the king's possession. In 1552 it was given as
an appanage by Henry II. to his son Henry of Valois, who, on
becoming king in 1574, with the title of Henry III., conceded it
to his brother Francis, duke of Alencon, at the treaty of Beaulieu
near Loches (6th of May 1576). Francis died on the 10th of June
1584, and the vacant appanage definitively became part of the
royal domain.

At first Anjou was included in the gouvemement (or military
command) of Orleanais, but in the 17th century was made into
a separate one. Saumur, however, and the Saumurois, for which
King Henry IV. had in 1589 created an independent military
governor-generalship in favour of Duplessis-Mornay, continued
till the Revolution to form a separate gouvemement, which in-
cluded, besides Anjou, portions of Poitou and Mirebalais.
Attached to the generalite (administrative circumscription) of
Tours, Anjou on the eve of the Revolution comprised five
elections (judicial districts) : — Angers, Beauge, Saumur, Chateau-
Gontier, Montreuil-Bellay and part of the elections of La Fleche
and Richelieu. Financially it formed part of the so-called pays
de grande gabelle (see Gabelle), and comprised sixteen special
tribunals, or greniers a sel (salt warehouses) : — Angers, Beauge,
Beaufort, Bourgueil, Cande, Chateau-Gontier, Cholet, Craon,
La Fleche, Saint-Florent-le-Vieil, Ingrandes, Le Lude, Pouance,
Saint-Remy-la-Varenne, Richelieu, Saumur. From the point
of view of purely judicial administration, Anjou was subject
to the parlement of Paris; Angers was the seat of a presidial
court, of which the jurisdiction comprised the sen&chaussecs
of Angers, Saumur, Beauge, Beaufort and the duchy of Richelieu;
there were besides presidial courts at Chateau-Gontier and La
Fleche. When the Constituent Assembly, on the 26th of
February 1790, decreed the division of France into departments,
Anjou and the Saumurois, with the exception of certain territories,
formed the department of Maine-et-Loire, as at present con-
stituted.

Authorities. — (1) Principal Svurces : The history of Anjou may
be told partly with the aid of the chroniclers of the neighbouring
provinces, especially those of Normandy (William of Poitiers,
William of Jumieges, Ordericus Vitalis) and of Maine (especially
Actus pontificum Cenomannis in urbe degentium). For the loth,
nth and 12th centuries especially, there are some important texts
dealing entirely with Anjou. The most important is the chronicle
called Gesta consilium Andegavorum, of which only a poor edition
exists {Chroniques des comtes d' Anjou, published by Marchegay and
Salmon, with an introduction by E. Mabille, Paris, 1856-1871,
collection of the Societe de Vhistoire de France). See also with refer-
ence to this text Louis Halphen, £,tude sur les chroniques des comtes
d' Anjou el des seigneurs d'Amboise (Paris, 1906). The above may be
supplemented by some valuable annals published by Louis Halphen,
Recueil d'annales angevines et vendomoises (Paris, 1903), (in the
series Collection de textes pour semir & V etude et a I'enseignement de
I'histoire). For further details see Auguste Molinier, Les Sources de
I'hiiloirc de France (Paris, 1902), ii. 1276-1310, and the book of
Louis Halphen mentioned below.

(2) Works: The Art de verifier les dates contains a history of
Anjou which is very much out of date, but has not been treated
elsewhere as a whole. The nth centuty only has been treated in
detail by Louis Halphen, in Le Comte d Anjou au XI' siecle (Paris,
1906), which has a preface with bibliography and an introduction
dealing with the history of Anjou in the 10th century. For the 10th,
nth and 12th centuries, a good summary will be found in Kate
Norgate. England under the Angevin Kings (2 vols., London, 1887).
On Rene of Anjou, there is a book by A. Lecoy de la Marche, Le Roi
Rene (2 vols., Paris, 1875). Lastly, the work of Celestin Port,
Dictionnaire historique, geographique et biographique de Maine-et-
Loire (3 vols.. Paris and Angers, 1874-1878), and its small volume of

Preliminaires (including a summary of the history of Anjou), contain,
in addition to the biographies of the chief counts of Anjou, a mass
of information concerning everything connected with Angevin
ruV.ory. * (L. H.*)

ANKERITE, a member of the mineral group of rhombohedral
carbonates. In composition it is closely related to dolomite,
but differs from this in having magnesia replaced by varying
amounts of ferrous and manganous oxides, the general formula
being Ca(Mg,Fe,Mn)(CO;,) 2 . Normal ankerite is Ca 2 MgFe(C0 3 )4.
The crystallographic and physical characters resemble those
of dolomite and chalybite. The angle between the perfect
rhombohedral cleavages is 73 48', the hardness 3! to 4, and the
specific gravity 2-9 to 3-1; but these will vary slightly with the
chemical composition. The colour is white, grey or reddish.

Ankerite occurs with chalybite in deposits of iron-ore. It
is one of the minerals of the dolomite-chalybite series, to which
the terms brown-spar, pearl-spar and bitter-spar are loosely
applied. It was first recognized as a distinct species by W. von
Haidinger in 1825, and named by him after M. J. Anker of
Styria. (L. J. S)

ANKLAM, or Anclam, a town of Germany in the Prussian
province of Pomerania, on the Peene, 5 m. from its mouth in the
Kleines Haff, and 53 m. N.W. of Stettin, by the railway to
Stralsund. Pop. (1900) 14,602. The fortifications of Anklam
were dismantled in 1762 and have not since been restored, al-
though the old walls are still standing; formerly, however, it was
a town of considerable military importance, which suffered
severely during the Thirty Years' and the Seven Years' Wars;
and this fact, together with the repeated ravages of fire and of the
plague, has made its history more eventful than is usually the case
with towns of the same size. It does not possess any remarkable
buildings, although it contains several, private as well as public,
that are of a quaint and picturesque style of architecture. The
church of St Mary (12th century) has a modern tower, 335 ft.
high. The industries consist of iron-foundries and factories for
sugar and soap; and there is a military school. The Peene is
navigable up to the town, which has a considerable trade in its
own manufactures, as well as in the produce of the surrounding
country, while some shipbuilding is carried on in wharves on the
river.

Anklam, formerly Tanglim, was originally a Slav fortress; it
obtained civic rights in 1 244 and joined the Hanseatic league. In
1648 it passed to Sweden, but in 1676 was retaken by Frederick
William I. of Brandenburg, and after being plundered by the
Russians in 17 13 was ceded to Prussia by the peace of Stockholm
in 1720.

ANKLE, or Ancle (a word common, in various forms, to
Teutonic languages, probably connected in origin with the Lat.
angulus, or Gr. ayidi\os, bent), the joint which connects the
foot with the leg (see Joints).

ANKOBER, a town in, and at one time capital of, the kingdom
of Shoa, Abyssinia, 90 m. N.E. of Adis Ababa, in 9° 34' N., 39 54'
E., on a mountain about 8500 ft. above the sea. Ankober was
made (c. 1890) by Menelek II. the place of detention of political
prisoners. Pop. about 2000. ,

ANKYLOSIS, or Anchylosis (from Gr. ayKvXos, bent,
crooked) , a stiffness of a joint, the result of injury or disease. The
rigidity may be complete or partial and may be due to inflamma-
tion of the tendinous or muscular structures outside the joint or
of the tissues of the joint itself. When the structures outside the
joint are affected, the term " false " ankylosis has been used in
contradistinction to " true " ankylosis, in which the disease is
within the joint. When inflammation has caused the joint-ends of
the bones to be fused together the ankylosis is termed osseous or
complete. Excision of a completely ankylosed shoulder or elbow
may restore free mobility and usefulness to the limb. " Anky-
losis " is also used as an anatomical term, bones being said to
ankylose (or anchylose) when, from being originally distinct, they
coalesce, or become so joined together that no motion can take
place between them.

ANKYLOSTOMIASIS, or Ankylostomiasis (also called
helminthiasis, "miners' anaemia," and in Germany Wurmkrank-

ANNA— ANNA COMNENA

heit), a disease to which in recent years much attention has been
paid, from its prevalence in the mining industry in England,
France, Germany, Belgium, North Queensland and elsewhere.
This disease (apparently known in Egypt even in very ancient
times) caused a great mortality among the negroes in the West
Indies towards the end of the 18th century; and through
descriptions sent from Brazil and various other tropical and
sub-tropical regions, it was subsequently identified, chiefly
through the labours of Bilharz and Griesinger in Egypt (1854), as
being due to the presence in the intestine of nematoid worms
(A nkylostoma duodenalis) from one-third to half an inch long. The
symptoms, as first observed among the negroes, were pain in the
stomach, capricious appetite, pica (or dirt-eating), obstinate
constipation followed by diarrhoea, palpitations, small and
unsteady pulse, coldness of the skin, pallor of the skin and mucous
membranes, diminution of the secretions, loss of strength and,
in cases running a fatal course, dysentery, haemorrhages and
dropsies. The parasites, which cling to the intestinal mucous
membrane, draw their nourishment from the blood-vessels of
their host, and as they are found in hundreds in the body after
death, the disorders of digestion, the increasing anaemia and the
consequent dropsies and other cachectic symptoms are easily
explained. The disease was first known in Europe among the
Italian workmen employed on the St Gotthard tunnel. In 1896,
though previously unreported in Germany, 107 cases were
registered there, and the number rose to 295 in 1900, and 1030 in
1901. In England an outbreak at the Dolcoath mine, Cornwall,
in 1902, led to an investigation for the home officeby Dr Haldane
F.R.S. (see especially the Parliamentary Paper, numbered Cd.
1843), and since then discussions and inquiries have been frequent.
A committee of the British Association in 1904 issued a valuable
report on the subject. After the Spanish- American War American
physicians had also given it their attention, with valuable results;
see Stiles {Hygienic Laboratory Bulletin, No. 10, Washington,
1903). The American parasite described by Stiles, and called
Uncinaria americana (whence the name Uncinariasis for this
disease) differs slightly from the Ankylostoma. The parasites
thrive in an environment of dirt, and the main lines of precaution
are those dictated by sanitary science. Malefern, santonine,
thymol and other anthelmintic remedies are prescribed.

ANNA, BALDASARRE, a painter who flourished during part
of the 16th and 1 7th centuries. He was born at Venice, probably
about 1 560, and is said to have been of Flemish descent. The date
of his death is uncertain, but he seems to have been alive in 1639.
For a number of years he studied under Leonardo Corona, and on
the death of that painter completed several works left unfinished
by him. His own activity seems to have been confined to the
production of pieces for several of the churches and a few private
houses in Venice, and the old guide-books and descriptions of the
city notice a considerable number of paintings by him. Scarcely
any of these, however, have survived.

ANNA (Hindustani ana), an Indian penny, the sixteenth part
of a rupee. The term belongs to the Mahommedan mone-
tary system (see Rupee). There is no coin of one anna, but
there are half-annas of copper and two-anna pieces of silver.
The term anna is frequently used to express a fraction. Thus an
Anglo-Indian speaks of two annas of dark blood (an octoroon),
a four-anna (quarter) crop, an eight-anna (half) gallop.

ANNA AMALIA (1739-1807), duchess of Saxe-Weimar,
daughter of Charles I., duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbilttel, was
born at Wolfenbiittel on the 24th of October 1739, and married
Ernest, duke of Saxe-Weimar, 1756. Her husband died in 1758,
leaving her regent for their infant son, Charles Augustus. During
the protracted minority she administered the affairs of the
duchy with the greatest prudence, strengthening its resources
and improving its position in spite of the troubles of the Seven
Years' War. She was a patroness of art and literature, and
attracted to Weimar many of the most eminent men in Germany.
Wieland was appointed tutor to her son; and the names of
Herder, Goethe and Schiller shed an undying lustre on her court.
In 1775 she retired into private life, her son having attained his
majority. In 1788 she set out on a lengthened tour through

Italy, accompanied by Goethe. She died on the 10th of April
1807. A memorial of the duchess is included in Goethe's works
under the title Zum Andcnken der Furstin Anna-Amalia.

See F. Bornhak, A nna Amalia Herzogin von Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach
(Berlin. 1892).

ANNABERG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony,
in the Erzgebirge, 1894 ft. above the sea, 6 m. from the Bohemian
frontier, 18J m. S. by E. from Chemnitz by rail. Pop. (1905)
16,811. It has three Evangelical churches, among them that of
St Anne, built 1499-1525, a Roman Catholic church, several
public monuments, among them those of Luther, of the famous
arithmetician Adam Riese, and of Barbara Uttmann. Anna-
berg, together with the neighbouring suburb, Buchholz, is the
chief seat of the braid and lace-making industry in Germany,
introduced here by Barbara Uttmann in 1561, and further
developed by Belgian refugees, who, driven from their country
by the duke of Alva, settled here in 1 590. The mining industry,
for which the town was formerly also famous and which embraced
tin, silver and cobalt, has now ceased. Annaberg has technical
schools for lace-making, commerce and agriculture, in addition
to high grade public schools for boys and girls.

ANNABER6ITE, a mineral consisting of a hydrous nickel
arsenate, Nis(As04)2+8H 2 0, crystallizing in the monoclinic
system and isomorphous with vivianite and erythrite. Crystals
are minute and capillary and rarely met with, the mineral
occurring usually as soft earthy masses and encrustations. A
fine apple-green colour is its characteristic feature. It was long
known (since 1758) under the name nickel-ochre; the name
annabergite was proposed by H. J. Brooke and W H. Miller in
1852, from Annaberg in Saxony, one of the localities of the
mineral. It occurs with ores of nickel, of which it is a product
of alteration. A variety, from Creetown in Kirkcudbrightshire,
in which a portion of the nickel is replaced by calcium, has been
called dudgeonite, after P. Dudgeon, who found it. (L. J. S.)

ANNA COMNENA, daughter of the emperor Alexius I.
Comnenus, the first woman historian, was born on the 1st of
December 1083. She was her father's favourite and was care-
fully trained in the study of poetry, science and Greek philosophy.
But, though learned and studious, she was intriguing and
ambitious, and ready to go to any lengths to gratify her longing
for power. Having married an accomplished young nobleman,
Nicephorus Bryennius, she united with the empress Irene in
a vain attempt to prevail upon her father during his last illness
to disinherit his son and give the crown to her husband. Still
undeterred, she entered into a conspiracy to depose her brother
after his accession; and when her husband refused to join in the
enterprise, she exclaimed that " nature had mistaken their
sexes, for he ought to have been the woman." The plot being
discovered, Anna forfeited her property and fowtune, though, by
the clemency of her brother, she escaped with her life. Shortly
afterwards, she retired into a convent and employed her leisure
in writing the Alexiad — a history, in Greek, of her father's life
and reign (1081-1118), supplementing the historical work of her
husband. It is rather a family panegyric than a scientific history,
in which the affection of the daughter and the vanity of the
author stand out prominently. Trifling acts of her father are
described at length in exaggerated terms, while little notice is
taken of important constitutional matters. A determined
opponent of the Latin church and an enthusiastic admirer of the
Byzantine empire, Anna Comnena regards the Crusades as a
danger both political and religious. Her models are Thucydides,
Polybius and Xenophon, and her style exhibits the striving after
Atticism characteristic of the period, with the result that the
language is highly artificial. Her chronology especially isdefective.
Editions in Bonn Corpus Scriptorum Hist. Byz., by J. Schopen
and A. Reifferscheid (1 839-1 878), with Du Cange's valuable com-
mentary; and Teubrier series, by A. Reifferscheid (1884). See also
C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Literatur (2nd ed.
1897) ; C. Neumann, Griechische Geschichtschreiber im 12 Jahrhunderte
(1888); E. Oster, Anna Komnena (Rastatt, 1868-1871); Gibbon,
Decline and. Fall, ch. 48; Finlay, Hist, of Greece, iii. pp. 53, 128
(1877); P. Adam, Princesses byzantines (1893); Sir Walter Scott,
Count Robert of Paris; L. du Sommerard, Anne Comnine . . . Agnes
de France (1907); C. Diehl, Figures byzantines (1906).

ANNA LEOPOLDOVNA— ANNALISTS

ANNA LEOPOLDOVNA, sometimes called Anna Carlovna
(1718-1746), regent of Russia for a few months during the
minority of her son Ivan, was the daughter of Catherine, sister
of the empress Anne, and Charles Leopold, duke of Mecklenburg-
Schwerin. In 1739 she married Anton Ulrich (d. 1775), son of
Ferdinand Albert, duke of Brunswick, and their son Ivan was
adopted in 1740 by the empress and proclaimed heir to the
Russian throne. A few days after this proclamation the empress
died, leaving directions regarding the succession, and appointing
her favourite Ernest Biren, duke of Courland, as regent. Biren,
however, had made himself an object of detestation to the
Russian people, and Anna had little difficulty in overthrowing
his power, She then assumed the regency, and took the title of
grand-duchess, but she knew little of the character of the people
with whom she had to deal, was utterly ignorant of the approved
Russian mode of government, and speedily quarrelled with her
principal supporters. In December 1741, Elizabeth, daughter
of Peter the Great, who, from her habits, was a favourite with
the soldiers, excited the guards to revolt, overcame the slight
opposition that was offered, and was proclaimed empress. Ivan
was thrown into prison, where he soon afterwards perished.
Anna and her husband were banished to a small island in the
river Dvina, where on the 18th of March 1746 she died in
childbed.

ANNALISTS (from Lat. annus, year; hence annates, sc.
libri, annual records), the name given to a class of writers on
Roman history, the period of whose literary activity lasted from
the time of the Second Punic War to that of Sulla. They wrote
the history of Rome from the earliest times (in most cases) down
to their own days, the events of which were treated in much
greater detail. For the earlier period their authorities were
state and family records — above all, the annales maximi (or
annales pontificum) , the official chronicle of Rome, in which the
notable occurrences of each year from the foundation of the city
were set down by the pontifex maximus. Although these annals
were no doubt destroyed at the time of the burning of Rome by
the Gauls, they were restored as far as possible and continued
until the pontificate of P. Mucius Scaevola, by whom they were
finally published in eighty books. Two generations of these
annalists have been distinguished — an older and a younger.
The older, which extends to 150 i.e., set forth, in bald, un-
attractive language, without any pretensions to style, but with
a certain amount of trustworthiness, the most important events
of each successive year. Cicero (DeOratore, ii. 12. 53), comparing
these writers with the old Ionic logographers, says that they
paid no attention to ornament, and considered the only merits
of a writer to be intelligibility and conciseness. Their annals
were a mere compilation of facts. The younger generation, in
view of the requirements and criticism of a reading public,
cultivated the art of composition and rhetorical embellishment.
As a general rule the annalists wrote in a spirit of uncritical
patriotism, which led them to minimize or gloss over such
disasters as the conquest of Rome by Porsenaand the compulsory
payment of ransom to the Gauls, and to flatter the people by
exaggerated accounts of Roman prowess, dressed up in fanciful
language. At first they wrote in Greek, partly because a national
style was not yet formed, and partly because Greek was the
fashionable language amongst the educated, although Latin
versions were probably published as well. The first of the
annalists, the father of Roman history, as he has been called,
was Q. Fabius Pictor (see Fabius Pictor); contemporary
with him was L. Cincius Alimentus, who flourished during
the Hannibalic war. 1 Like Fabius Pictor, he wrote in Greek.
He was taken prisoner by Hannibal (Livy xxi. 38), who is said
to have given him details of the crossing of the Alps. His work
embraced the history of Rome from its foundation down to his
own days. With M. Porcius Cato (q.v.) historical composition

1 He is not to be confused with L. Cincius, the author of various
political and antiquarian treatises (de Fastis, de Comitiis, de Priscis
Verbis), who lived in the Augustan age, to which period Mommsen,
considering them a later fabrication, refers the Greek annals of
L. Cincius Alimentus.

in Latin began, and a livelier interest was awakened in the
history of Rome. Among the principal writers of this class who
succeeded Cato, the following may be mentioned. L. Cassius
Hemina (about 146), in the fourth book of his Annals, wrote on
the Second Punic War. His researches went back to very early
times; Pliny {Nat. Hist. xiii. 13 [27]) calls him vetustissimus
auctor annalium. L. Calpurnius Piso, surnamed Frugi (see
under Piso), wrote seven books of annals, relating the history
of the city from its foundation down to his own times. Livy
regards him as a less trustworthy authority than Fabius Pictor,
and Niebuhr considers him the first to introduce systematic
forgeries into Roman history. Q. Claudius Quadrigarius
(about 80 B.C.) wrote a history, in at least twenty-three books,
which began with the conquest of Rome by the Gauls and went
down to the death of Sulla or perhaps later. He was freely used
by Livy in part of his work (from the sixth book onwards). A
long fragment is preserved in Aulus Gellius (ix. 13), giving an
account of the single combat between Manlius Torquatus and
the Gaul. His language was antiquated and his style dry, but
his work was considered important. Valerius Antias, a
younger contemporary of Quadrigarius, wrote the history of
Rome from the earliest times, in a voluminous work consisting
of seventy-five books. He is notorious for his wilful exaggera-
tion, both in narrative and numerical statements. For instance,
he asserts the number of the Sabine virgins to have been exactly
527; again, in a certain year when no Greek or Latin writers
mention any important campaign, Antias speaks of a big battle
with enormous casualties. Nevertheless, Livy at first made use
of him as one of his chief authorities, until he became convinced
of his untrustworthiness. C. Licinius Macer (died 66), who
has been called the last of the annalists, wrote a voluminous
work, which, although he paid great attention to the study of
his authorities, was too rhetorical, and exaggerated the achieve-
ments of his own family. Having been convicted of extortion,
he committed suicide (Cicero, De Legibus, i. 2, Brutus, 67;
Plutarch, Cicero, 9).

The writers mentioned dealt with Roman history as a whole;
some of the annalists, however, confined themselves to shorter
periods. Thus, L. Caelius Antipater (about 1 20) limited
himself to the Second Punic War. His work was overloaded with
rhetorical embellishment, which he was the first to introduce
into Roman history. He was regarded as the most careful
writer on the war with Hannibal, and one who did not allow
himself to be blinded by partiality in considering the evidence
of other writers (Cicero, De Oratore, ii. 12). Livy made great
use of him in his third decade. Sempronius Asellio (about
100 B.C.), military tribune of Scipio Africanus at the siege of
Numantia, composed Rerum Gestarum Libri in at least fourteen
books. As he himself took part in the events he describes, his
work was a kind of memoirs. He was the first of his class who
endeavoured to trace the causes of events, instead of contenting
himself with a bare statement of facts. L. Cornelius Sisenna
(119-67), legate of Pompey in the war against the pirates, lost
his life in an expedition against Crete. He wrote twenty-three
books on the period between the Social War and the dictatorship
of Sulla. His work was commended by Sallust (Jugurtha, 95),
who, however, blames him for not speaking out sufficiently.
Cicero remarks upon his fondness for archaisms (Brutus, 74.
259). Sisenna also translated the tales of Aristides of Miletus,
and is supposed by some to have written a cemmentary on
Plautus. The autobiography of Sulla may also be mentioned.

See C. W. Nitzsch, Die rbmische Annalistik (1873) ; H. Peter, Zur
Kritik der Quellen der alteren romischen Geschichte (1879); L. O.
Brocker, Moderne Quellenforscher und antike Geschichtschreiber
(1882); fragments in H. Peter, Historicorum Romanorum Reliquiae
(1870, 1906), and Historicorum Romanorum Fragmenta (1883); also
articles Rome, History (ancient) ad fin., section " Authorities," and
Livy, where the use made of the annalists by the historian is
discussed; Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopadie, art. "Annales";
the histories of Roman Literature by M. Schanz and Teuffel-
Schwabe; Mommsen, Hist, of Rome (Eng. tr.), bk. ii. ch. 9, bk. iii.
ch. 14, bk. iv. ch. 13, bk. v. ch. 12; C. Wachsmuth, Einleitung in
das Studium der alten Geschichte (1895); H. Peter, bibliography of
the subject in Bursian's Jahresbericht, exxvi. (1906). (J. H. F.)

ANNALS— ANNAM

ANNALS (Annates, from annus, a year), a concise historical
record in which events are arranged chronologically, year by
year. The chief sources of information in regard to the annals
of ancient Rome are two passages in Cicero (De Oralore, ii. 12.
52) and in Servius (ad Aen. i. 373) which have been the subject
of much discussion. Cicero states that from the earliest period
down to the pontificate of Publius Mucius Scaevola (c. 131 B.C.),
it was usual for the pontifex maximus to record on a white tablet
(album), which was exhibited in an open place at his house, so
that the people might read it, first, the name of the consuls and
other magistrates, and then the noteworthy events that had
occurred during the year (per singulos dies, as Servius says).
These records were called in Cicero's time the Annates Maximi.
After the pontificate of Publius, the practice of compiling annals
was carried on by various unofficial writers, of whom Cicero
names Cato, Pictor and Piso. The Annates have been generally
regarded as the same with the Commentarii Pontificum cited by
Livy, but there seems reason to believe that the two were dis-
tinct, the Commentarii being fuller and more circumstantial.
The nature of the distinction between annals and history is a
subject that has received more attention from critics than its
intrinsic importance deserves. The basis of discussion is fur-
nished chiefly by the above-quoted passage from Cicero, and by
the common division of the work of Tacitus into Annates and
Historiae. Aulus Gellius, in the Nodes Alticae (v. 18), quotes the
grammarian Verrius Flaccus, to the effect that history, according
to its etymology (Urroptiv, inspicere, to inquire in person), is a
record of events that have come under the author's own observa-
tion, while annals are a record of the events of earlier times
arranged according to years. This view of the distinction seems
to be borne out by the division of the work of Tacitus into the
Historiae, relating the events of his own time, and the Annates,
containing the history of earlier periods. It is more than
questionable, however, whether Tacitus himself divided his
work under these titles. The probability is, either that he called
the whole Annates, or that he used neither designation. (See
Tacitus, Cornelius.)

In the middle ages, when the order of the liturgical feasts was
partly determined by the date of Easter, the custom wa3 early
established in the Western Church of drawing up tables to
indicate that date for a certain number of years or even
centuries. These Paschal tables were thin books in which each
annual date was separated from the next by a more or less con-
siderable blank space. In these spaces certain monks briefly
noted the important events of the year. It was at the end
of the 7th century and among the Anglo-Saxons that the
compiling of these Annals was first begun. Introduced by
missionaries on the continent, they were re-copied, augmented
and continued, especially in the kingdom of Austrasia. In the
9th century, during the great movement termed the Carolingian
Renaissance, these Annals became the usual form of contem-
porary history; it suffices- to mention the Annates Einhardi, the
Annates Laureshamcnses (or " of Lorsch "), and the Annates S.
Berlini, officially compiled in order to preserve the memory of
the more interesting acts of Charlemagne, his ancestors and
his successors. Arrived at this stage of development, the
Annals now began to lose their primitive character, and
henceforward became more and more indistinguishable from the
Chronicles.

In modern literature the title annals has been given to a
large number of standard works which adhere more or less strictly
to the order of years. The best known are the Annates Eccle-
siastici, written by Cardinal Baronius as a rejoinder to and
refutation of the Historia ecclesiaslica or " Centuries " of the
Protestant theologians of Magdeburg (12 vols., published at
Rome from 1788 to 1793; Baronius's work stops at the year
1 197). In the 19th century the annalistic form was once more
employed, either to preserve year by year the memory of passing
events (Annual Register , Annuaire de la Revue des deux tnondes,
&c.) or in writing the history of obscure medieval periods
(Jahrbiicher der deutschen Geschichte, Jahrbucher des deutschen
Reiches, Richter's Reichsannalen, &c). (C. B.*)

ANNAM, or Anam, a country of south-eastern Asia, now
forming a French protectorate, part of the peninsula of Indo-
China. (See Indo-China, French) . It is bounded N. by Tong-
king, E. and S.E. by the China Sea, S.W. by Cochin-China, and
W. by Cambodia and Laos. It comprises a sinuous strip of
territory measuring between 750 and 800 m. in length, with an
approximate area of 52,000 sq. m. The population is estimated
at about 6,124,000

The country consists chiefly of a range of plateaus and wooded
mountains, running north and south and declining on the coast
to a narrow band of plain varying between 12 and 50 m. in
breadth. The mountains are cut transversely by short narrow
valleys, through which run rivers, most of which are dry in
summer and torrential in winter.' The Song-Ma and the Song-
Ca in the north, and the Song-Ba, Don-Nai and Se-Bang-Khan in
the south, are alone of any size. The chief harbour is that afforded
by the bay of Tourane at the centre of the coast-line. South of
this point the coast curves outwards and is broken by peninsulas
and indentations; to the north it is concave and bordered in
many places by dunes and lagoons.

Climate. — In Annam the rainy season begins during September
and lasts for three or four months, corresponding with the north-
east monsoon and also with a period of typhoons. During the
rains the temperature varies from 59 or even lower to 75 F.
June, July and August are the hottest months, the thermometer
often reaching 85 or 90°, though the heat of the day is to some
degree compensated by the freshness of the nights. The south-
west monsoon which brings rain in Cochin-China coincides with
the dry season in Annam, the reason probably being that the
mountains and lofty plateaus separating the two countries
retain the precipitation.

Ethnography. — The Annamese, or, to use the native term, the
Giao-chi, are the predominant people not only in Annam but in
the lowland and cultivated parts of Tongking and in Cochin-
China and southern Cambodia. According to their own annals
and traditions they once inhabited southern China, a theory
which is confirmed by many of their habits and physical character-
istics; the race has, however, been modified by crossings with
the Chams and other of the previous inhabitants of Indo-China.

The Annamese is the worst-built and. ugliest of all the Indo-
Chinese who belong to the Mongolian race. He is scarcely of
middle height and is shorter and less vigorous than his neighbours.
His complexion is tawny, darker than that of the Chinese, but
clearer than that of the Cambodian; his hair is black, coarse
and long; his skin is thick; his forehead low; his skull slightly
depressed at the top, but well developed at the sides. His face is
flat, with highly protruding cheek-bones, and is lozenge-shaped
or eurygnathous to a degree that is nowhere exceeded. His nose
is not only the flattest, but also the smallest among the Indo-
Chinese; his eyes are rarely oblique; his mouth is large and
his lips thick; his teeth are blackened and his gums destroyed
by the constant use of the betel-nut, the areca-nut and lime.
His neck is short, his shoulders slope greatly, his body is thick-set
and wanting in suppleness. Another peculiarity is a separation
of the big toe from the rest, greater than is found in any other
people, and sufficiently general and well marked to serve as an
ethnographic test. The Annamese of Cochin-China are weaker
and smaller than those of Tongking, probably as a result of
living amid marshy rice-fields. The Annamese of both sexes
wear wide trousers, a long, usually black tunic with narrow
sleeves and a dark-coloured turban, or in the case of the lower
classes, a wide straw hat; they either go bare-foot or wear sandals
or Chinese boots. The typical Annamese dwelling is open to the
gaze of the passer-by during the day; at night a sort of partition
of bamboo is let down. The roof is supported on wooden pillars
and walls are provided only at the sides. The house consists
principally of one large room opening on the front verandah
and containing the altar of the family's ancestors, a table in the
centre and couches placed against the wall. The chief elements
of the native diet are rice, fish and poultry; vegetables and pork
are also eaten. The family is the base of the social system
in Annam and is ruled by its head, who is also priest and judge.

ANNAM

Polygamy is permitted but rarely practised, and the wife enjoys
a position of some freedom.

Though fond of ease the Annamese are more industrious than
the neighbouring peoples. Theatrical and musical entertainments
are popular among them. They show much outward respect
for superiors and parents, but they are insincere and incapable
of deep emotion. They cherish great love of their native soil
and native village and cannot remain long, from home. A
proneness to gambling and opium-smoking, and a tinge of vanity
and deceitfulness, are their less estimable traits. On the whole
they are mild and easy-going and even apathetic, but the
facility with which they learn is remarkable. Like their neighbours
the Cambodians and the Chinese, the Annamese have a great
respect for the dead, and ancestor worship constitutes the national
religion. The learned hold the doctrine of Confucius, and
Buddhism, alloyed with much popular superstition, has some
influence. Like the Chinese the Annamese bury their dead.

Among the savage tribes of the interior there is scarcely any
idea of God and their superstitious practices can scarcely be
considered as the expression of a definite religious idea. Roman
Catholics number about 420,000. In the midst of the Annamese
live Cambodians and immigrant Chinese, the latter associated
together according to the districts from which they come and
carrying on nearly all the commerce of the country. In the
forests and mountains dwell tribes of savages, chiefly of
Indonesian origin, classed by the Annamese under the name
Mots or " savages." Some of these tribes show traces of
Malay ancestry. Of greater historical interest are the Chams,
who are to be found for the most Dart in southern Annam and in
Cambodia, and who, judging from the numerous remains found
there, appear to have been the masters of the coast region of
Cochin-China and Annam till they succumbed before the pressure
of the Khmers of Cambodia and the Annamese. They are taller,
more muscular, and more supple than the Annamese. Their
language is derived from Malay, and while some of the Chams
are Mussulmans, the dominant religion is Brahmanism, and more
especially the worship of Siva. Their women have a high
reputation for virtue, which, combined with the general bright
and honest character of the whole people, differentiates them from
the surrounding nations.

Evidently derived from the Chinese, of which it appears to be
a very ancient dialect, the Annamese language is composed of
monosyllables, of slightly varied articulation, expressing different
ideas according to the tone in which they are pronounced. It is
quite impossible to connect with our musical system the utterance
of the sounds of which the Chinese and Annamese languages are
composed. What is understood by a" tone " in this language
is distinguished in reality, not by the number of sonorous
vibrations which belong to it, but rather by a use of the vocal
apparatus special to each. Thus, the sense will to a native be
completely changed according as the sound is the result of an
aspiration or of a simple utterance of the voice. Thence the
difficulty of substituting our phonetic alphabet for the ideo-
graphic characters of the Chinese, as well as for the ideophonetic
writing partly borrowed by the Annamese from the letters of the
celestial empire. To the Jesuit missionaries is due the intro-
duction of an ingenious though very complicated system, which
has caused remarkable progress to be made in the employment of
phonetic characters. By means of six accents, one bar and a
crotchet it is possible to note with sufficient precision the indica-
tions of tone without which the Annamese words have no sense
for the natives.

Agriculture and other Industries. — The cultivation of rice,
which is grown mainly in the small deltas along the coast and
in some districts gives two crops annually, and fishing, together
with fish-salting and the preparation of nuoc-mam, a sauce
made from decaying fish, constitute the chief industries of
Annam.

Silk spinning and weaving are carried on on antiquated lines,
and silkworms are reared in a desultory fashion. Besides rice,
theproductsof the countryinclude tea, tobacco, cotton, cinnamon,
precious woods and rubber; coffee, pepper, sugar-canes and

jute are cultivated to a minor extent. Trie exports (total value
in 1905 £237,010) comprise tea, raw silk and small quantities of
cotton, rice and sugar-cane. The imports (£284,824 in 1905)
include rice, iron goods, flour, wine, opium and cotton goods.
There are coal-mines at Nong-Son, near Tourane, and gold,
silver, lead, iron and other metals occur in the mountains.
Trade, which is in the hands of the Chinese, is for the most part
carried on by sea, the chief ports being Tourane and Qui-Nhon,
which are open to European commerce.

Administration. — Annam is ruled in theory by its emperor,
assisted by the " comat " or secret council, composed of the heads
of the six ministerial departments of the interior, finance, war,
ritual, justice and public works, who are nominated by himself.
The resident superior, stationed at Hue, is the representative of
France and the virtual ruler of the country. He presides over
a council (Conseil de Protectorat) composed of the chiefs of the
French services in Annam, together with two members of the
' ' comat " ; this body deliberates on questions of taxation affecting
the budget of Annam and on local public works. A native
governor (tong-doc or tuan-phu), assisted by a native staff,
administers each of the provinces into which the country is
divided, and native officials of lower rank govern the areas
into which these provinces are subdivided. The governors
take their orders from the imperial government, but they are
under the eye of French residents. Native officials are appointed
by the court, but the resident superior has power to annul an
appointment. The mandarinate or official class is recruited
from all ranks of the people by competitive examination. In
the province of Tourane, a French tribunal alone exercises
jurisdiction, but it administers native law where natives are
concerned. Outside this territory the native tribunals
survive. The Annamese village is self-governing. It has its
council of notables, forming a sort of oligarchy which,
through the medium of a mayor and two subordinates, directs
the interior affairs of the community — policing, recruiting, the
assignment and collection of taxes, &c. — and has judicial power
in less important suits and crimes. More serious cases come
within the purview of the an-sat, a judicial auxiliary of the
governor. An assembly of notables from villages grouped
together in a canton chooses a cantonal representative, who is
the mouthpiece of the people and the intermediary between the
government and its subjects. The direct taxes, which go to the
local budget of Annam, consist primarily of a poll-tax levied
on all males over eighteen and below sixty years of age, and of
a land-tax levied according to the quality and the produce of the
holding.

The following table summarizes the local budget of Annam
for the years 1899 and 1904: —

—

Receipts.

Expenditure.

1899
1904

£203,082 (direct taxes, £171,160)
£247,435 ( „ „ £219,841)

£i75-H7
£232,480

In 1904 the sum allocated to the expenses of the court, the
royal family and the native administration, the members of
which are paid by the crown, was £85,000, the chief remaining
heads of expenditure being the government house and residencies
(£39,709), the native guard (£32,609) and public works (£24,898).

Education is available to every person in the community.
The primary school, in which the pupils learn only Chinese
writing and the precepts of Confucius, stands at the base of this
system. Next above this is the school of the district capital,
where a half-yearly examination takes place, by means of which
are selected those eligible for the course of higher education
given at the capital of the province in a school under the direction
of a doc-hoc, or inspector of studies. Finally a great triennial
competition decides the elections. The candidate whose work
is notified as Ires bien is admitted to the examinations at Hue,
which qualify for the title of doctor and the holding of administra-
tive offices. The education of a mandarin includes local history,
cognizance of the administrative rites, customs, laws and
prescriptions of the country, the ethics of Confucius, the rules

ANNAN— ANNAPOLIS

01 good breeding, the ceremonial of official and social life,
and the practical acquirements necessary to the conduct of public
or private business. Annamese learning goes no farther. It
includes no scientific idea, no knowledge of the natural sciences,
and neglects even the most rudimentary instruction conveyed
in a European education. The complications of Chinese writing
greatly hamper education. The Annamese mandarin must be
acquainted with Chinese, since he writes in Chinese characters.
But the character being ideographic, the words which express
them are dissimilar in the two languages, and official text is
read in Chinese by a Chinese, in Annamese by an Annamese.

The chief towns of Annam are Hue (pop. about 42,000), seat
both of the French and native governments, Tourane (pop. about
4000), Phan-Thiet (pop. about 20,000) in the extreme south,
Qui-Nhon, and Fai-Fo, a commercial centre to the south of
Tourane. A road following the coast from Cochin-China to
Tongking, and known as the " Mandarin road," passes through or
near the chief towns of the provinces and forms the chief artery
of communication in the country apart from the railways
(see Indo-China, French).

History. — The ancient tribe of the Giao-chi, who dwelt on
the confines of S. China, and in what is now Tongking and
northern Annam, are regarded by the Annamese as their
ancestors, and tradition ascribes to their first rulers descent
from the Chinese imperial family. These sovereigns were suc-
ceeded by another dynasty, under which, at the end of the
3rd century B.C., the Chinese invaded the country, and eventually
established there a supremacy destined to last, with little
intermission, till the 10th century a.d. In 968 Dinh-Bo-Lanh
succeeded in ousting the Chinese and founded an independent
dynasty of Dinh. Till this period the greater part of Annam
had been occupied by the Chams, a nation of Hindu civilization,
which has left many monuments to testify to its greatness, but
the encroachment of the Annamese during the next six centuries
at last left to it only a small territory in the south of the country.
Three lines of sovereigns followed that of Dinh, under the last
of which, about 1407, Annam again fell under the Chinese yoke.
In 1428 an Annamese general Le-Loi succeeded in freeing the
country once more, and founded a dynasty which lasted till
the end of the 18th century. During the greater part of this
period, however, the titular sovereigns were mere puppets,
the reality of power being in the hands of the family of Trinh
in Tongking and that of Nguyen in southern Annam, which
in 1 568 became a separate principality under the name of Cochin-
China. Towards the end of the 18th century a rebellion over-
threw the Nguyen, but one of its members, Gia-long, by the aid
of a French force, in 1801 acquired sway over the whole of Annam,
Tongking and Cochin-China. This force was procured for him
by Pigneau de Behalne, bishop of Adran, who saw in the political
condition of Annam a means of establishing French influence
in Indo-China and counterbalancing the English power in India.
Before this, in 1787, Gia-long had concluded a treaty with
Louis XVI., whereby in return for a promise of aid he ceded
Tourane and Pulo-Condore to the French. That treaty marks
the beginning of French influence in Indo-China.

See also Legrand de la Liraye, Notes historiques sur la nation
annamite (Pans, 1866?); C. Gosselin, V Empire d' Annam (Paris,
1904) ; E. Sombsthay, Cours de legislation et d' administration
annamites (Paris, i~

ANNAN, a royal, municipal and police burgh of Dumfriesshire,
Scotland, on the Annan, nearly 2 m. from its mouth, 15 m. from
Dumfries by the Glasgow & South-Western railway. It has a
station also on the Caledonian railway company's branch line
from Kirtlebridge to Brayton (Cumberland), which crosses the
Solway Firth at Seafield by a viaduct, ij m. long, constructed of
iron pillars girded together by poles, driven through the sand and
gravel into the underlying bed of sandstone. Annan is a well-
built town, red sandstone being the material mainly used. Among
its public buildings is the excellent academy of which Thomas
Carlyle was a pupil. The river Annan is crossed by a stone bridge
of three arches dating from 1824, and by a railway bridge. The
Harbour Trust, constituted in 1897, improved the shipping

accommodation, and vessels of 300 tons approach close to the
town. The principal industries include cotton and rope manu-
factures, bacon-curing, distilling, tanning, shipbuilding, sand-
stone quarrying, nursery-gardening and salmon-fishing. Large
marine engineering works are in the vicinity. Annan is a burgh
of considerable afttiquity. Roman remains exist in the neighbour-
hood, and the Bruces, lords of Annandale, the Baliols, and the
Douglases were more or less closely associated with it. During
the period of the Border lawlessness the inhabitants suffered
repeatedly at the hands of moss-troopers and through the feuds of
rival families, in addition to the losses caused by the English and
Scots wars. Edward Irving was a native of the town. With
Dumfries, Kirkcudbright, Lochmaben and Sanquhar, Annan
unites in sending one member to parliament. Annan Hill com-
mands a beautiful prospect. Population (1901) 5805.

ANNA PERENNA, an old Roman deity of the circle or " ring "
of the year, as the name (per annum) clearly indicates. Her
festival fell on the full moon of the first month (March 15), and
was held at the grove of the goddess at the first milestone on the
Via Flaminia. It was much frequented by the city plebs, and
Ovid describes vividly the revelry and licentiousness of the
occasion (Fasti, \i\. 523 foil.). From Macrobius we learn (Sat.i. 12.
6) that sacrifice was made to her " ut annare perannareque com-
mode liccat," i.e. that the circle of the year may be completed
happily. This is all we know for certain about the goddess and
her cult; but the name naturally suggested myth-making, and
Anna became a figure in stories which may be read in Ovid (I.e.)
and in Silius Italicus (8.50 foil.). The coarse myth told by Ovid,
in which Anna plays a trick on Mars when in love with Minerva,
is probably an old Italian folk-tale, poetically applied to the
persons of these deities when they became partially anthropo-
morphized under Greek influence. (W. W. F.*)

ANNAPOLIS, a city and seaport of Maryland, U.S.A., the
capital of the state, the county seat of Anne Arundel county, and
the seat of the United States Naval Academy; situated on the
Severn river about 2 m. from its entrance into Chesapeake Bay,
26 m. S. by E. from Baltimore and about the same distance E. by
N. from Washington. Pop. (1890) 7604; (1900) 8525, of whom
3002 were negroes; (1910 census) 8609. Annapolis is served
by the Washington, Baltimore & Annapolis (electric) and the
Maryland Electric railways, and by the Baltimore & Annapolis
steamship line. On an elevation near the centre of the city stands
the state house (the corner stone of which was laid in 1772), with
its lofty white dome (200 ft.) and pillared portico. Close by are
the state treasury building, erected late in the 17th century for
the House of Delegates; Saint Anne's Protestant Episcopal
church, in later colonial days a state church, a statue of Roger B.
Taney (by W.H. Rinehart) , and a statue of Baron Johann de Kalb.
There are a number of residences of 18th century architecture, and
the names of several of the streets — such as King George's, Prince
George's, Hanover, and Duke of Gloucester — recall the colonial
days. The United States Naval Academy was founded here in
1845. Annapolis is the seat of Saint John's College, a non-
sectarian institution supported in part by the state; it was opened
in 1789 as the successor of King William's School, which was
founded by an act of the Maryland legislature in 1696 and was
opened in 1701. Its principal building, McDowell Hall, was
originally intended for a governor's mansion; although £4000
current money was appropriated for its erection in 1742, it was
not completed until after the War of Independence. In 1907 the
college became the school of arts and sciences of the university
of Maryland.

Annapolis, at first called Providence, was settled in 1649 by
Puritan exiles from Virginia. Later it bore in succession the
names of Town at Proctor's, Town at the Severn, Anne Arundel
Town, and finally in 1694, Annapolis, in honour of Princess Anne,
who at the time was heir to the throne of Great Britain. In 1694
also, soon after the overthrow of the Catholic government of the
lord proprietor, it was made the seat of the new government as
well as a port of entry, and it has since remained the capital of
Maryland; but it was not until 1708 that it was incorporated as
a city. From the middle of the 18th century until the War of

6 4

ANNAPOLIS— ANNATES

Independence, Annapolis was noted for its wealthy and cultivated
society. The Maryland Gazette, which became an important
weekly journal, was founded by Jonas Green in 1745; in 1769 a
theatre was opened; during this period also the commerce was
considerable, but declined rapidly after Baltimore, in 1780, was
made a port of entry, and now oyster-packing is the city's only im-
portant industry. Congress was in session in the state house here
from the 26th of November 1783 to the 3rd of June 1784, and it
was here on the 23rd of December 1783 that General Washington
resigned his commission as commander-in-chief of the Continental
Army. In 1786 a convention, to which delegates from all the
states of the Union were invited, was called to meet in Annapolis
to consider measures for the better regulation of commerce (see
Alexandria, Va.) ; but delegates came from only five states
(New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, New Jersey, and Delaware),
and the convention — known afterward as the " Annapolis Con-
vention," — without proceeding to the business for which it had
met, passed a resolution calling for another convention to meet
at Philadelphia in the following year to amend the articles of
confederation; by this Philadelphia convention the present
Constitution of the United States was framed.

See D. Ridgely, Annals of Annapolis from 1649 until the War of
1812 (Baltimore, 1841); S. A. Shafer, "Annapolis, Ye Ancient
City," in L. P. Powell's Historic Towns of the Southern States (New
York, 1900); and W. Eddis, Letters from America (London, 1792).

ANNAPOLIS, a town of Nova Scotia, capital of Annapolis
county and up to 1750 of the entire peninsula of Nova Scotia;
situated on an arm of the Bay of Fundy, at the mouth of the
Annapolis river, 95 m. W. of Halifax; and the terminus of the
Windsor & Annapolis railway. Pop. (1901) 1019. It is one of
the oldest settlements in North America, having been founded in
1604 by the French, who called it Port Royal. It was captured
by the British in 17 10, and ceded to them by the treaty of Utrecht
in 1 7 13, when the name was changed in honour of Queen Anne.
It possesses a good harbour, and the beauty of the surrounding
country makes it a favourite summer resort. The town is
surrounded by apple orchards and in May miles of blossoming
trees make a beautiful sight. The fruit, which is excellent in
quality, is the principal export of the region.

ANN ARBOR, a city and the county-seat of Washtenaw
county, Michigan, U.S.A., on the Huron river, about 38 m.
W. of Detroit. Pop. (1890) 9431; (1900) 14,509, of whom
2329 were foreign-born; (1910) 14,817. It is served by the
Michigan Central and the Ann Arbor railways, and by an
electric line running from Detroit to Jackson and connecting
with various other lines. Ann Arbor is. best known as the seat of
the university of Michigan, opened in 1837. The city has many
attractive residences, and the residential districts, especially in
the east and south-east parts of the city, command picturesque
views of the Huron valley. Ann Arbor is situated in a productive
agricultural and fruit-growing region. The river provides good
water-power, and among the manufactures are agricultural
implements, carriages, furniture (including sectional book-cases),
pianos and organs, pottery and flour. In 1824 Ann Arbor was
settled, laid out as a town, chosen for the county-seat, and
named in honour of Mrs Ann Allen and Mrs Ann Rumsey, the
wives of two of the founders. It was incorporated as a village in
1833, and was first chartered as a city in 1851.

ANNATES (Lat. annatae, from annus, " year "), also known
as '' first-fruits " (Lat. primitiae), in the strictest sense of the
word, the whole of the first year's profits of a spiritual benefice
which, in all countries of the Roman obedience, were formerly
paid into the papal treasury. This custom was only of gradual
growth. The jus deportuum, annalia or annatae, was originally
the right of the bishop to claim the first year's profits of the
living from a newly inducted incumbent, of which the first
mention is found under Pope Honorius (d. 1227), but which had
its origin in a custom, dating from the 6th century, by which
those ordained to ecclesiastical offices paid a fee or tax to the
ordaining bishop. The earliest records show the annata to have
been, sometimes a privilege conceded to the bishop for a term of
years, sometimes a right based on immemorial precedent. In

course of time the popes, under stress of financial crises, claimed
the privilege for themselves, though at first only temporarily.
Thus, in 1305, Clement V. claimed the first-fruits of all vacant
benefices in England, and in 13 19 John XXII. those of all
Christendom vacated within the next two years. In those cases
the rights of the bishops were frankly usurped by the Holy See,
now regarded as the ultimate source of the episcopal jurisdic-
tion; the more usual custom' was for the pope to claim the
first-fruits only of those benefices of which he had reserved the
patronage to himself. It was from these claims that the papal
annates, in the strict sense, in course of time developed.

These annates may be divided broadly into three classes,
though the chief features are common to all: (1) the servilia
communia or servitia Camerae Papae, i.e. the payment into the
papal treasury by every abbot and bishop, on his induction, 01
one year's revenue of his new benefice. The servitia communia
are traceable to the oblatio paid to the pope when consecrating
bishops as metropolitan or patriarch. When, in the middle of
the 13th century, the consecration of bishops became established
as the sole right of the pope, the oblations of all bishops of the
West were received by him and, by the close of the 14th century,
these became fixed at one year's revenue. 1 A small additional
payment, as a kind of notarial fee^was added (servilia minula).
(2) The jus deportuum, fructus medii temporis, or annalia, i.e.
the annates due to the bishop, but in the case of " reserved "
benefices paid by him to the Holy See. (3) The quindennia, i.e.
annates payable, under a bull of Paul II. (1469), by benefices
attached to a corporation, every fifteen years and not at every
presentation.

The system of annates was at no time worked with absolute
uniformity and completeness throughout the various parts of
the church owning obedience to the Holy See, and it was never
willingly submitted to by the clergy. Disagreements and dis-
putes were continual, and the easy expedient of rewarding the
officials of the Curia and increasing the papal revenue by " re-
serving " more and more benefices was met by repeated protests,
such as that of the bishops and barons of England (the chief
sufferers), headed by Robert Grossetesteof Lincoln, at the council
of Lyons in 1245. 2 The subject, indeed, frequently became one
of national interest, on account of the alarming amount of specie
which was thus drained away, and hence numerous enactments
exist in regard to it by the various national governments. In
England the collection and payment of annates to the pope was
prohibited in 1531 by statute. At that time the sum amounted
to about £3000 a year. In 1534 the annates were, along with the
supremacy over the church in England, bestowed on the crown;
but in February 1 704 they were appropriated by Queen Anne to
the assistance of the poorer clergy, and thus form what has since
been known as " Queen Anne's Bounty " (q.i).). The amount to
be paid was originally regulated by a valuation made under the
direction of Pope Innocent IV. by Walter, bishop of Norwich, in
1254, later by one instituted under commission from Nicholas
III. in 1292, which in turn was superseded in 1535 by the valua-
tion, made by commissioners appointed by Henry VIII., known
as the King's Books, which was confirmed on the accession of
Elizabeth and is still that by which the clergy are rated. In
France, in spite of royal edicts — like those of Charles VI., Charles
VII., Louis XL, and Henry II. — and even denunciations of the
Sorbonne, at least the custom of paying the servilia communia
held its ground.till the famous decree of the 4th of August during
the Revolution of 1789. In Germany it was decided by the
concordat of Constance, in 1418, that bishoprics and abbacies
should pay the servitia according to the valuation of the Roman
chancery in two half-yearly instalments. Those reserved bene-
fices only were to pay the annalia which were rated above twenty-
four gold florins; and as none were so rated, whatever their
annual value may have been, the annalia fell into disuse. A

1 For cases see du Cange, Glossarium, s. Servitium Camerae Papae ;
J. C. L. Gieseler, Eccles. Hist., vol. iii. div. iii., notes to p. 181, &c.
(Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1853).

2 Durandus (Guillaume Durand), in his de modo generalis concilii
celebrandi, represents contemporary clerical hostile opinion and
attacks the corruptions of the officials of the Curia.

ANNE, QUEEN

similar convenient fiction also led to their practical abrogation in
France, Spain and Belgium. The council of Basel (1431-1443)
wished to abolish the servitia, but the concordat of Vienna (1448)
confirmed the Constance decision, which, in spite of the efforts
of the congress of Ems (1786) to alter it, still remains nominally
in force. As a matter of fact, however, the revolution caused by
the secularization of the ecclesiastical states in 1803 practically
put an end to the system, and the servitia have either been
commuted via gratiae to a moderate fixed sum under particular
concordats, or are the subject of separate negotiation with each
bishop on his appointment. In Prussia, where the bishops
receive salaries as state officials, the payment is made by the
government.

In Scotland annat or ann is half a year's stipend allowed by
the Act 1672, c. 13, to the executors of a minister of the Church of
Scotland above what was due to him at the time of his death.
This is neither assignable by the clergyman during his life, nor
can it be seized by his creditors.

ANNE (1665-1714), queen of Great Britain and Ireland, second
daughter of James, duke of York, afterwards James II., and of
Anne Hyde, daughter of the 1st earl of Clarendon, was born
on the 6th of February 1665. She suffered as a child from an
affection of the eyes, and was sent to France for medical treat-
ment, residing with her grandmother, Henrietta Maria, and on
the latter's death with her aunt, the duchess of Orleans, and
returning to England in 1670. She was brought up, together
with her sister Mary, by the direction of Charles II., as a strict
Protestant, and as a child she made the friendship of Sarah
Jennings (afterwards duchess of Marlborough), thus beginning
life under the two influences which were to prove the most
powerful in her future career. In 1678 she accompanied Mary of
Modena to Holland, and in 1679 joined her parents abroad and
afterwards in Scotland. On the 28th of July 1683 she married
Prince George of Denmark, brother of King Christian V., an
unpopular union because of the French proclivities of the
bridegroom's country, but one of great domestic happiness,
the prince and princess being conformable in temper and both
preferring retirement and quiet to life in the great world. Sarah
Churchill became Anne's lady of the bedchamber, and, by the
latter's desire to mark their mutual intimacy and affection, all
deference due to her rank was abandoned and the two ladies
called each other Mrs Morley and Mrs Freeman.

On the 6th of February 1685 James became king of England.
In 1687 a project of settling the crown on the princess, to the
exclusion of Mary, on the condition of Anne's embracing Roman
Catholicism, was rendered futile by her pronounced attachment
to the Church of England, and beyond sending her books and
papers James appears to have made no attempt to coerce his
daughter into a change of faith, 1 and to have treated her with
kindness, while the birth of his son on the 10th of June 1688
made the religion of his daughters a matter of less political
importance. Anne was not present on the occasion, having gone
to Bath, and this gave rise to a belief that the child was spurious;
but it is most probable that James's desire to exclude all
Protestants from affairs of state was the real cause. " I shall never
now be satisfied," Anne wrote to Mary, " whether the child be true
or false. It may be it is our brother, but God only knows . . .
one cannot help having a thousand fears and melancholy thoughts,
but whatever changes may happen you shall ever find me firm
to my religion and faithfully yours." 2 In later years, however,
she had no doubt that the Old Pretender was her brother.
During the events immediately preceding the Revolution Anne
kept in seclusion. Her ultimate conduct was probably influenced
by the Churchills ; and though forbidden by James, to pay Mary
a projected visit in the spring of 1688, she corresponded with her;
and was no doubt aware of William's plans. Her position was
now a very critical and painful one. She refused to show any
sympathy with the king after William had landed in November,
and wrote, with the advice of the Churchills, to the prince,

1 See also Hist. MSS. Comm., MSS. of Duke of Rutland at Belvoir,
ii. 109.

2 Dalrymple's Memoirs, ii. 175.

II. 3

declaring her approval of his action. 3 Churchill abandoned the
king on the 24th, Prince George on the 25th, and when James
returned to London on the 26th he found that Anne and her
lady-in-waiting had during the previous night followed their
husbands' examples. Escaping from Whitehall by a back
staircase they put themselves under the care of the bishop of
London, spent one night in his house, and subsequently arrived
on the 1st of December at Nottingham, where the princess first
made herself known and appointed a council. Thence she
passed through Leicester, Coventry and Warwick, finally entering
Oxford, where she met Prince George, in triumph, escorted by
a large company. Like Mary, she was reproached for showing
no concern at the news of the king's flight, but her justification
was that " she never loved to do anything that looked like an
affected constraint." She returned to London on the 19th of
December, when she was at once visited by William. Subse-
quently the Declaration of Rights settled the succession of the
crown upon her after William and Mary and their children.

Meanwhile Anne had suffered a series of maternal disappoint-
ments. Between 1684 and 1688 she had miscarried' four times
and given birth to two children who died infants. On the 24th
of July 1689, however, the birth, of a son, William, created duke
of Gloucester, who survived his infancy, gave hopes that heirs
to the throne under the Bill of Rights might be forthcoming.
But Anne's happiness was soon troubled by quarrels with the
king and queen. According to the duchess of Marlborough the
two sisters, who had lived hitherto while apart on extremely
affectionate terms, found no enjoyment in each other's society.
Mary talked too much for Anne's comfort, and Anne too little
for Mary's satisfaction. But money appears to have been the
first and real cause of ill-feeling. The granting away by William
of the private estate of James, amounting to £22,000 a year, to
which Anne had some claim, was made a grievance, and a
factious motion brought forward in the House to increase her
civil list pension of £30,000, which she enjoyed in addition to
£20,000 under her marriage settlement, greatly displeased
William and Mary, who regarded it as a plot to make Anne
independent and the chief of a separate interest in the state,
while their resentment was increased by the refusal of Anne to
restrain the action of her friends, and by its success. The
Marlboroughs had been active in the affair and had benefited by
it, the countess (as she then was) receiving a pension of £1000,
and their conduct was noticed at court. The promised Garter
was withheld from Marlborough, and the incensed " Mrs Morley"
in her letters to " Mrs Freeman " styled the king " Caliban "
or the " Dutch Monster." At the close of 1691 Anne had
declared her approval of the naval expedition in favour of her
father, and expressed grief at its failure. 4 According to the
doubtful Life of James, she wrote to him on the 1st of December
a " most penitential and dutiful " letter, and henceforward kept
up with him a "fair correspondence." 5 The same year the
breach between the royal sisters was made final by the dismissal
of Marlborough, justly suspected of Jacobite intrigues, from all
his appointments. Anne took the part of her favourites with
great zeal against the court, though in all probability unaware
of Marlborough's treason; and on the dismissal of the countess
from her household by the king and queen she refused to part
with her, and retired with Lady Marlborough to the duke of
Somerset's residence at Sion House. Anne was now in disgrace.
She was deprived of her guard of honour, and Prince George, on
entering Kensington Palace, received no salute, though the
drums beat loudly on his departure. 6 Instructions were given
that the court expected no one to pay his respects, and no
attention in the provinces was to be shown to their rank. In
May, Marlborough was arrested on a charge of high treason which
subsequently broke down, and Anne persisted in regarding his
disgrace as a personal injury to herself. In August 1 693 , however,

3 Dalrymple's Memoirs, ii. 249.

4 Lord Ailesbury's Memoirs, 293.

6 Macpherson i. 241 ; Clarke's Life of James II., ii. 476. The
letter, which is only printed in fragments, is not in Anne's style,
and if genuine was probably dictated by the Churchills.

e Luttrell ii. 366, 376.

ANNE, QUEEN

the two sisters were temporarily reconciled, and on the occasion
of Mary's last illness and death Anne showed an affectionate
consideration.

The death of Mary weakened William's position and made
it necessary to cultivate good relations with the princess. She
was now treated with every honour and civility, and finally
established with her own court at St James's Palace. At the
same time William kept her in the background and refrained
from appointing her regent during his absence. In March 1695
Marlborough was allowed to kiss the king's hands, and subse-
quently was made the duke of Gloucester's governor and restored
to his employments. In return Anne gave her support to
William's government, though about this time, in 1606 — according
to James, in consequence of the near prospect of the throne —
she wrote to her father asking for his leave to wear the crown
at William's death, and promising its restoration at a convenient
opportunity. 1 The unfounded rumour that William contem-
plated settling the succession after his death on James's son,
provided he were educated a Protestant in England, may possibly
have alarmed her. 2 Meanwhile, since the birth of the duke of
Gloucester, the princess had experienced six more miscarriages,
and had given birth to two children who only survived a few
hours, and the last maternal hope flickered out on the death of
the young prince on the 29th of July 1700. Henceforth Anne
signs herself in her letters to Lady Marlborough as " your poor
unfortunate " as well as " faithful Morley." In default of her
own issue, Anne's personal choice would probably have inclined
at this time to her own family at St Germains, but the necessity
of maintaining the Protestant succession caused the enactment
of the Act of Settlement in 1701, and the substitution of the
Hanoverian branch. She wore mourning for her father in 1701,
and before his death James is said to have written to his daughter
asking for her protection for his family; but the recognition of his
son by Louis XIV. as king of England effectually prevented any
good offices to which her feelings might have inclined her.

On the 8th of March 1702 Anne became, by King William's
death, queen of Great Britain, being crowned on the 23rd of
April. Her reign was destined to be one of the most brilliant
in the annals of England. Splendid military triumphs crushed
the hereditary national foe. The Act of Union with Scotland
constituted one of the strongest foundations of the future
empire. Art arid literature found a fresh renascence.

In her first speech to parliament, like George III. afterwards,
Anne declared her " heart to be entirely English," words which
were resented by some as a reflection on the late king. A
ministry, mostly Tory, with Godolphin at its head,was established.
She obtained a grant of £700,000 a year, and hastened to bestow
a pension of £100,000 on her husband, whom she created general-
issimo of her forces and lord high admiral, while Marlborough
obtained the Garter', with the captain-generalship and other
prizes, including a dukedom, and the duchess was made mistress
of the robes with the control of the privy purse. The queen
showed from the first a strong interest in church matters, and
declared her intention to keep church appointments in her own
hands. She detested equally Roman Catholics and dissenters,
showed a strong leaning towards the high-church party, and gave
zealous support to the bill forbidding occasional conformity.
In 1 704 she announced to the Commons her intention of granting
to the church the crown revenues, amounting to about £16,000 or
£17,000 a year, from tenths and first-fruits (paid originally by
the clergy to the pope, but appropriated by the crown in 1534),
for the increase of poor livings; her gift, under the name of
" Queen Anne's Bounty," still remaining as a testimony of her
piety. This devotion to the church, the strongest of all motives
in Anne's conduct, dictated her hesitating attitude towards
the two great parties in the state. The Tories had for this reason
her personal preference, while the Whigs, who included her power-
ful favourites the Marlboroughs, identified their interests with

1 Macpherson i. 257 ; Clarke's James II., ii. 559. See also
Shrewsbury's anonymous correspondent in Hist. MSS. Comm. Ser.;
MSS. Duke of Buccleugh at Montagu House, ii. 169.

• Macaulay iv. 799 note

the war and its glorious successes, the queen slowly and un-
willingly, but inevitably, gravitating towards the latter.

In December, the archduke Charles visited Anne at Windsor
and was welcomed as the king of Spain. In 1 704 Anne acquiesced
in the resignation of Lord Nottingham, the leader of the high
Tory party. In the same year the great victory of Blenheim
further consolidated the power of the Whigs and increased the
influence of Marlborough, upon whom Anne now conferred the
manor of Woodstock. Nevertheless, she declared in November
to the duchess that whenever things leaned towards the Whigs,
" I shall think the church is beginning to be in danger." Next
year she supported the election of the Whig speaker, John Smith,
but long resisted the influence and claims of the Junto, as the
Whig leaders, Sorhers, Halifax, Orford, Wharton and Sunderland,
were named. In October she was obliged to appoint Cowper,
a Whig, lord chancellor, with all the ecclesiastical patronage
belonging to the office. Marlborough's successive victories,
and especially the factious conduct of the Tories, who in
November 1705 moved in parliament that the electress Sophia
should be invited to England, drove Anne farther to the side
of the Whigs. But she opposed for some time the inclusion in
the government of Sunderland, whom she especially disliked, only
consenting at Marlborough's intercession in December 1706,
when various other offices and rewards were bestowed upon
Whigs, and Nottingham with other Tories was removed from the
council. She yielded, after a struggle, also to the appointment
of Whigs to bishoprics, the most mortifying submission of all.
In 1708 she was forced to dismiss Harley, who, with the aid of
Mrs Masham, had been intriguing against the government and
projecting the creation of a third party. Abigail Hill, Mrs
Masham, a cousin of the duchess of Marlborough, had been
introduced by the latter as a poor relation into Anne's service,
while still princess of Denmark. The queen found relief in the
quiet and respectful demeanour of her attendant, and gradually
came to prefer her society to that of the termagant and tem-
pestuous duchess. Abigail, however, soon ventured to talk
" business," and in the summer of 1707 the duchess discovered
to her indignation that her protegee had already undermined
her influence with the queen and had become the medium of
Harley's intrigue. The strength of the Whigs at this time and
the necessities of the war caused the retirement of Harley,
but he remained Anne's secret adviser and supporter against
the faction, urging upon her " the dangers to the crown as well
as to the church and monarchy itself from their counsels and
actions," 3 while the duchess never regained her former influence.
The inclusion in the cabinet of Somers, whom she especially
disliked as the hostile critic of Prince George's admiralty
administration, was the subject of another prolonged struggle,
ending again in the queen's submission after a futile appeal
to Marlborough in October 1708, to which she brought herself
only to avoid a motion from the Whigs for the removal of the
prince, then actually on his deathbed. His death on the 28th of
October was felt deeply by the queen, and opened the way for
the inclusion of more Whigs. But no reconciliation with the
duchess took place, and in 1 709 a further dispute led to an angry
correspondence, the queen finally informing the duchess of the
termination of their friendship, and the latter drawing up a
long narrative of her services, which she forwarded to Anne
together with suitable passages on the subject of friendship
and charity transcribed from the Prayer Book, the Whole Duty
of Man and from Jeremy Taylor. 4 Next year Anne's desire
to give a regiment to Hill, Mrs Masham's brother, led to another
ineffectual attempt in retaliation to displace the new favourite,
and the queen showed her antagonism to the Whig administra-
tion on the occasion of the prosecution of Sacheverell. She was
present at his trial and was publicly acclaimed by the mob as
his supporter, while the Tory divine was consoled immediately
on the expiration of his sentence with the living of St Andrew's,
Holborn. Subsequently the duchess, in a final interview which
she had forced upon the queen, found her tedrs and reproaches

3 Swift's Mem. on the Change of the Ministry.

4 Conduct of the Duchess of Marlborough, p. 225.

ANNE, QUEEN

6 7 ,

unavailing. In her anger she had told the queen she wished for
no answer, and she was now met by a stony and exasperating
silence, broken only by the words constantly repeated, "You
desired no answer and you shall have none."

The fall of the Whigs, now no longer necessary on account of
the successful issue of the war, to accomplish which Harley had
long been preparing and intriguing, followed; and their attempt
to prolong hostilities from party motives failed. A friend of
Harley, the duke of Shrewsbury, was first appointed to office,
and subsequently the great body of the Whigs were displaced
by Tories, Harley being made chancellor of the exchequer and
Henry St John secretary of state. The queen was rejoiced
at being freed from what she called a long captivity, and the
new parliament was returned with a Tory majority. On the
17th of January 1711, in spite of Marlborough's efforts to ward
off the blow, the duchess was compelled to give up her key of
office. The queen was now able once more to indulge in her
favourite patronage of the church, and by her influence an act
was passed in 171 2 for building fifty new churches in London.
Later, in 1 7 14, she approved of the Schism Bill. She gave strong
support to Harley, now earl of Oxford and lord treasurer, in
the intrigues and negotiations for peace. Owing to the alliance
between the Tory Lord Nottingham and the Whigs, on the
condition of the support by the latter of the bill against occasional
conformity passed in December 1711, the defeated Whigs
maintained a majority in the Lords, who declared against any
peace which left Spain to the Bourbons. To break down this
opposition Marlborough was dismissed on the 31st from all his
employments, while the House of Lords was " swamped " by
Anne's creation of twelve peers, 1 including Mrs Masham's
husband. The queen's conduct was generally approved, for the
nation was now violently adverse to the Whigs and war party;
and the peace of Utrecht was finally signed on the 31st of March
1 713, and proclaimed on the 5th of May in London.

As the queen's reign drew to its close, rumours were rife on the
great subject of the succession to the throne. Various Jacobite
appointments excited suspicion. Both Oxford and Bolingbroke
were in communication with the Pretender's party, and on the
27th of July Oxford, who had gradually lost influence and
quarrelled with Bolingbroke, resigned, leaving the supreme
power in the hands of the latter. Anne herself had a natural
feeling for her brother, and had shown great solicitude concerning
his treatment when a price had been set on his head at the
time of the Scottish expedition in 1708. On the 3rd of March
1 7 14 James wrote to Anne, Oxford and Bolingbroke, urging the
necessity of taking steps to secure his succession, and promising,
on the condition of his recognition, to make no further attempts
against the queen's government; and in April a report was
circulated in Holland that Anne had secretly determined to
associate James with her in the government. The wish expressed
by the Whigs, that a member of the electoral family should be
invited to England, had already aroused the queen's indignation
in 1708; and now, in 1714, a writ of summons for the electoral
prince as duke of Cambridge having been obtained, Anne forbade
the Hanoverian envoy, Baron Schutz, her presence, and declared
all who supported the project her enemies; while to a memorial
on the same subject from the electress Sophia and her grandson
in May, Anne replied in an angry letter, which is said to have
caused the death of the electress on the 8th of June, requesting
them not to trouble the peace of her realm or diminish her
authority.

These demonstrations, however, were the outcome not of any
returning partiality for her own family, but of her intense dislike,
in which she resembled Queen Elizabeth, of any " successor,"
" it being a thing I cannot bear to have any successor here
though but for a week "; and in spite of some appearances to
the contrary, it is certain that religion and political wisdom
kept Anne firm to the Protestant succession. 2 She had main-
tained a friendly correspondence with the court of Hanover since

1 For their names see Hume and Smollett's Hist. (Hughes, 1854)
viil. no.

2 See also Hist. MSS. Comm. Ser. Rep. vii. App. 246b.

1705, and in 1706 had bestowed the Garter on the electoral
prince and created him duke of Cambridge; while the Regency
Act provided for the declaration of the legal heir to the crown
by the council immediately on the queen's death, and a further
enactment naturalized the electress and her issue. In 1708, on
the occasion of the Scottish expedition, notwithstanding her
solicitude for his safety, she had styled James in her speech
closing the session of parliament as " a popish pretender bred
up in the principles of the most arbitrary government." The
duchess of Marlborough stated in 17 13 that all the time she had
known "that thing" (as she now called the queen) , "she had never
heard her speak a favourable word of him." 3 No answer appears
to have been sent to James's letter in 17 14; on the contrary, a
proclamation was issued (June 23) for his apprehension in case
of his arrival in England. On the 27th of April Anne gave a
solemn assurance of her fidelity to the Hanoverian succession
to Sir William Dawes, archbishop of York; in June she sent
Lord Clarendon to Hanover to satisfy the elector.

The sudden illness and death of the queen now frustrated any
schemes which Bolingbroke, or others might have been contem-
plating. On the 27th, the day of Oxford's resignation, the
discussions concerning his successor detained the council sitting
in the queen's presence till two o'clock in the morning, and on
retiring Anne was instantly seized with fatal illness. Her ad-
herence to William in 1688 had been a principal cause of the
success of the Revolution, and now the final act of her life was
to secure the Revolution settlement and the Protestant succes-
sion. During a last moment of returning consciousness, and by
the advice of the whole council, who had been joined on their
own initiative by the Whig dukes Argyll and Somerset, she placed
the lord treasurer's staff in the hands of the Whig duke of
Shrewsbury, and measures were immediately taken for assuring
the succession of the elector. Her death took place on the 1st
of August, and the security felt by the public, and perhaps the
sense of perils escaped by the termination of the queen's life,
were shown by a considerable rise in the national stocks. She
was buried on the south side of Henry VII.'s chapel in West-
minster Abbey, in the same tomb as her husband and children.
The elector of Hanover, George Louis, son of the electress
Sophia (daughter of Elizabeth, daughter of James I.), peacefully
succeeded to the throne as George I. (q.v.).

According to her physician Arbuthnot, Anne's life was
shortened by the " scene of contention among her servants. I
believe sleep was never more welcome to a weary traveller than
death was to her." By character and temperament unfitted to
stand alone, her life had been unhappy and tragical from its
isolation. Separated in early years from her parents and sister,
her one great friendship had proved only baneful and ensnaring.
Marriage had only brought a mournful series of infant funerals.
Constant ill-health and suffering had darkened her career. The
claims of family attachment, of religion, of duty, of patriotism
and of interest, had dragged her in opposite directions, and her
whole life had been a prey to jealousies and factions which closed
around her at her accession to the throne, and surged to their
height when she lay on her deathbed. The modern theory of the
relations between the sovereign and the parties, by which the
former identifies himself with the faction for the time in power
while maintaining his detachment from all, had not then been
invented; and Anne, like her Hanoverian successors, maintained
the struggle, though without success, to rule independently,
finding support in Harley. During the first year of her reign
she made known that she was " resolved not to follow the
example of her predecessor in making use of a few of her subjects
to oppress the rest. She will be queen of all her subjects, and
would have all the parties and distinctions of former reigns ended
and buried in hers." 4 Her motive for getting rid of the Whigs
was not any real dislike of their administration, but the wish to
escape from the domination of the party, 5 and on the advent

3 Ibid. Portland MSS. v. 338.

4 Sir J. Leveson-Gower to Lord Rutland, Hist. MSS. Comm.,
Duke of Rutland's MSS. ii. 173.

6 See Bolingbroke's Letter to Sir W. Wyndham.

ANNE, EMPRESS

to power of the Tories she carefully left some Whigs in their
employments, with the aim of breaking up the party system and
acting upon what was called " a moderate scheme." She
attended debates in the Lords and endeavoured to influence
votes. Her struggles to free herself from the influence of factions
only involved her deeper; she was always under the domination
of some person or some party, and she could not rise above them
and show herself the leader of the nation like Elizabeth.

Anne was a women of small ability, of dull mind, and of that
kind of obstinacy which accompanies weakness of character.
According to the duchess she had " a certain knack of sticking
to what had been dictated to her to a degree often very dis-
agreeable, and without the least sign of understanding or judg-
ment." l " I desire you would not have so ill an opinion of me,"
Anne writes to Oxford, " as to think when I have determined
anything in my mind I will alter it." 2 Burnet considered that
" she laid down the splendour of a court too much," which was
" as it were abandoned." She dined alone after her husband's
death, but it was reported by no means abstemiously, the royal
family being characterized in the lines: —
" King William thinks all.

Queen Mary talks all,

Prince George drinks all,

And Princess Anne eats all." 3

She took no interest in the art, the drama or the literature of
her day. But she possessed the homely virtues; she was deeply
religious, attached to the Church of England and concerned for
the efficiency of the ministry. One of the first acts of her reign
was a proclamation against vice, and Lord Chesterfield regretted
the strict morality of her court. Instances abound of her kind-
ness and consideration for others. Her moderation towards
the Jacobites in Scotland, after the Pretender's expedition in
1708, was much praised by Saint Simon. She showed great
forbearance and generosity towards the duchess of Marlborough
in the face of unexampled provocation, and her character was
unduly disparaged by the latter, who with her violent and coarse
nature could not understand the queen's self-restraint in sorrow,
and describes her as " very hard " and as " not apt to cry."
According to her small ability she served the state well, and was
zealous and conscientious in the fulfilment of public' duties, in
which may be included touching for the king's evil, which she
revived. Marlborough testifies to her energy in finding money
for the war. She surrendered £ 1 0,000 a year for public purposes,
and in 1706 she presented £30,000 to the officers and soldiers
who had lost their horses. Her contemporaries almost unani-
mously record her excellence and womanly virtues; and by
Dean Swift, no mild critic, she is invariably spoken of with
respect, and named in his will as of " ever glorious, immortal
and truly pious memory, the real nursing-mother of her king-
doms." She deserves her appellation of " Good Queen Anne,"
and notwithstanding her failings must be included among the
chief authors and upholders of the great Revolution settlement.
Her person was described by Spanheim, the Prussian ambassador,
as handsome though inclining to stoutness, with black hair, blue
eyes and good features, and of grave aspect.

Anne's husband, Prince George- (1653-1708), was the second
son of Frederick III., king of Denmark. Before marrying Anne
he had been a candidate for the throne of Poland. He was
created earl of Kendal and duke of Cumberland in 1689.
Some censure, which was directed against the prince in his
capacity as lord high admiral, was terminated by his death.
In religion George remained a Lutheran, and in general his
qualities tended to make him a good husband rather than a
soldier or a statesman.

Bibliography.— Diet, of Nat. Biography (Dr A. W. Ward);
A. Strickland, Lives of the Queens of England (1852), somewhat
uncritical; an excellent account written by Spanheim for the king
of Prussia, printed in the Eng. Hist. Rev. ii. 757; histories of Stan-
hope, Lecky, Ranke, Macaulay, Boyes, Burnet, Wyon, and Somer-
ville; F. E. Morris, The Age of Anne (London, 1877) ; Correspondence

1 Private Correspondence, ii. 120. '

s Hist. MSS. Comm., MSS. of Marq. of Bath at Longleat; i. 237.

3 Notes and Queries, xi. 254. '

and Diary of Lord Clarendon (1828) ; Hatton Correspondence (Camden
Soc, 1878); Evelyn's Diary; Sir J. Dalrymple's Memoirs (1790);
N. Lutfrell's Brief Hist. Relation (1857); Wentworth Papers (1883);
W.'Coxe, Mem. of the Duke of Marlborough (1847); Conduct of the
Dowager Duchess of Marlborough (1742) ; Ralph, The other Side of the
Question (1742) ; Private Correspondence of Sarah Duchess of Marl-
borough (1838) ; A. T, Thomson, Mem. of the Duchess and the. Court of
Queen Anne (1839); J. S. Clarke's Life of James II. (1816); J.
Macpherson's Original Papers (1775); Swift's Some Considerations
upon the Consequences from the Death of the Queen, An Inquiry into
the Behaviour of the Queen's last Ministry, Hist, of the Four
Last Years of Queen Anne, and Journals and Letters; The Lockhart
Papers (1817), i.;.F. Salomon, Geschichte des letzien 'Minislrriums
Kbnigin Annas (1894); Marchmont Papers, Hi. (1831); W. Sichel
Life of Bolingbroke (190H902) ; Mem. of Thomas Earl of Ailesbury
(Roxburghe Club, 1890); Eng. Hist, Rev. i. 470, 756, viii. 740 ;
Royal Hist. Soc. Trans. N.S. xiv. 69; Col. of Slate Papers;
Treasury; Hist. MSS. Comm. Series, MSS. of Duke of Portland,
including the Harley Papers, Duke of Buccleugh at Montagu House,
Lord Kenyon, Marq. of Bath at Longleat; Various Collections, ii. 146,
Duke Of Rutland at Belvoir, ph Rep. app., and H. M. the King {Stuart
Papers, i.); Stowe MSS. in Brit. Museum; Sir J. Mackintosh's
Transcripts, Add. MSS. in Brit. Museum, 34, 487-526; Edinburgh
Rev.; October 1835, p. 1; Notes and Queries, vii. ser. iii. 178, viii.
ser. i. 72, xii. 368, ix, ser. iv. 282, xi, 254; C. Hodgson, An Account
of the Augmentation of Small Livings by the Bounty of Queen Anne
(1845) ; Observations of the Governors of Queen Anne's Bounty (1867) ;
Sbmers Tracts, xii. xiii. (1814-1815) ; H. Paul, Queen Anne (London,
1907). (P C. Y.)

ANNE (1693-1740), empress of Russia, second daughter of Tsar
Ivan V., Peter the Great's imbecile brother, and Praskovia
Saltuikova. Her girlhood was passed at Ismailovo near Moscow,
with her mother, an ignorant, bigoted tsaritsa of the old school,
who neglected and even hated her daughters. Peter acted as a
second father to the Ivanovs, as Praskovia and her family were
called. In 1 7 10 he married Anne to Frederick William, duke of
Courland, who died of surfeit on his journey home from St
Petersburg. The reluctant young widow was ordered to proceed
on her way to Mittau to take over the government of Courland,
with the Russian resident, Count Peter Bestuzhev, as her adviser.
He was subsequently her lover, till supplanted by Biren (q.v.).
Anne's residence at Mittau was embittered by the utter inadequacy
of her revenue, which she keenly felt. It was therefore with joy
that she at once accepted the Russian crown, as the ,next heir,
after the death of Peter II. (January 30, 1730), when it was offered
to her by the members of the supreme privy council, even going
so far as to subscribe previously nine articles which would have
reduced her from an absolute to a very limited monarch. On
the 26th of February she made her public entry into Moscow under
strict surveillance. On the 8th of March a coup d'etat, engineered
by a party of her personal friends, overthrew the supreme privy
council and she was hailed as autocrat. Her government, on the
whole, was prudent, beneficial and even glorious; but it was
undoubtedly severe and became at last universally unpopular.
This was due in the main to the outrageous insolence of her all-
powerful favourite Biren, who hated the Russian nobility and
trampled upon them mercilessly. Fortunately, Biren was
sufficiently prudent not to meddle with foreign affairs or with the
army, and these departments in the able hands of two Other
foreigners, who thoroughly identified themselves with Russia,
Andrei Osterman {q.v.) and Burkhardt Munnich (q.v.) did great
things in the reign of Anne. The chief political events of the
period were the War of the Polish Succession and the second {
Crimean War. The former was caused by the reappearance of
Stanislaus Leszczynski as a candidate for the Polish throne after
the death of Augustus II. (February 1, 1733). The interests of
Russia would not permit her to recognize a candidate dependent
directly on France and indirectly upon Sweden and Turkey, all
three powers being at that time opposed to Russia's "system."
She accordingly united with Austria to support the candidature of
the late king's son, Augustus of Saxony. So far as Russia was con-
cerned, the War of the Polish Succession was quickly over. Much
more important was the Crimean War of .1 736-39. This war marks
the beginning of that systematic struggle on the part of Russia to
recover her natural and legitimate southern boundaries. It lasted

4 Vasily Golltsuin's expedition under the regency of Sophia was
the first Crimean War (1687-89).

ANNE OF BRITTANY^-ANNE OF DENMARK

four years and a half, and cost her a hundred thousand men and
millions of roubles; and though invariably successful, she had to
be content with the acquisition of a single city (Azov) with a small
district at the mouth of the Don. Yet more had been gained than
was immediately apparent. In the first place, this was the only
war hitherto waged by Russia against Turkey which had not ended
in crushing disaster. Munnich had at least dissipated the illusion
of Ottoman invincibility, and taught the Russian soldier that
100,000 janissaries and spahis were no match, in a fair field, for
half that number of grenadiers and hussars. In the second place
the Tatar hordes had been well nigh exterminated. In the third
place Russia's signal and unexpected successes in the Steppe had
immensely increased her prestige on the continent. " This court
begins to have a great deal to say in the affairs of Europe,"
remarked the English minister, SirClaudius Rondeau, a year later.

The last days of Anne were absorbed by the endeavour to
strengthen the position of the heir to the throne, the baby
cesarevich Ivan, afterwards Ivan VI., the son of the empress's
niece, Anna Leopoldovna, against the superior claims of her
cousin the cesarevna Elizabeth. The empress herself died three
months later (28th of October 1740). Her last act was to
appoint Biren regent during the infancy of her great-nephew.

Anne was a grim, sullen woman, frankly sensual, but as Well-
meaning as ignorance and vindictiveness would allow her to be.
But she had much natural good sense, was a true friend and, in
her more cheerful moments, an amiable companion. Lady
Rondeau's portrait of the empress shows her to the best advan-
tage. She is described as a large woman, towering above all the
cavaliers of her court, but very well shaped for her size, easy and
graceful in her person, of a majestic bearing, but with an awful-
negs in her countenance which revolted those who disliked her.

See R. Nisbet Bain, The Pupils of Peter the Great (London, 1897) ;
Letters from a lady who resided some years in Russia (i.e. Lady
Rondeau) (London, 1775); Christoph Hermann .Manstein, Mimoires
sur la Russie (Amsterdam, 1771 ; English edition, London, 1856);
Gerhard Anton von Wa\em,Lebensschreibung des Feldm.B. C.Graf en von
Munnich (Oldenburg, 1 803) ; Claudius Rondeau,DiplomaticDespatches
from Russia, 1728-1739 (St Petersburg, 1889-1892). (R. N. B.)

ANNE OF BRITTANY (1477-1514), daughter of Francis II.,
duke of Brittany, and Marguerite de Foix. She was scarcely
twelve years old when she succeeded her father as duchess on
the 9th of September 1488. Charles VIII. aimed at establishing
his authority over her; Alain d'Albret wished to marry her;
Jean de Rohan claimed the duchy ; and her guardian, the marshal
de Rieux, was soon in open revolt against his sovereign. In 1489
the French army invaded Brittany. In order to protect her
independence,' Anne concluded an alliance with Maximilian of
Austria, and soon married him by proxy (December 1489). But
Maximilian was incapable of defending her, and in 1491 the young
duchess found herself compelled to treat with Charles VIII. and
to marry him. The two sovereigns made a reciprocal arrangement
as to their rights and pretensions to the crown of Brittany, but
in the event of Charles predeceasing her, Anne undertook to marry
the heir to the throne. Nevertheless, in 1492, after the conspiracy
of Jean de Rohan, who had endeavoured to hand over the duchj
to the king of England, Charles VIII. confirmed the privileges of
Brittany, and in particular guaranteed to the Bretons the right of
paying only those taxes to which the assembly of estates consented,
After the death of Charles VIII. in 1498, without any children,
Anne exercised the sovereignty in Brittany, and in January 1499
she married Louis XII., who had just repudiated Joan of France.
The marriage contract was ostensibly directed in favour of the
independence of Brittany, for it declared that Brittany should
revert to the second son or to the eldest daughter of the two
sovereigns, and, failing issue, to the natural heirs of the duchess.
Until her death Anne occupied herself personally with the
administration of the duchy. In 1504 she caused the treaty of
Blois to be concluded, which assured the hand of her daughter,
Claude of France, to Charles of Austria (the future emperor,
CharlesV.),andpromised him thepossession of Brittany ,Burgundy
and the county of Blois. But this unpopular treaty was broken,
and the queen had to consent to the betrothal of Claude to Francis

of Angouleme, who in 1515 became king of France as Francis I.
Thus the definitive reunion of Brittany and France was prepared.

See A. de la Borderie, Choix de documents inedits sur le regne de la
duchesse Anne en Bretagne (Rennes, 1866 and 1902) — extracts from
the Memoires de la Societe Archeologique du departement a" Ille-et-
Vildine, vols. iv. and vi. (1866 and 1868) ; Leroux de Lincy, Vie de la
reine Anne de Bretagne (1860-1861); A. Dupuy, La Reunion de la
Bretagne ita France (1880); A. de la Borderie, La Bretagne aux
demiers siecles du moyen age (1893), and La Bretagne aux temps
modernes (1894). (H. Se.)

ANNE OF CLEVES (1515-1557), fourth wife of Henry VIII.,
king of England, daughter of John, duke of Cleves, and Mary,
only daughter of William, duke of Juliers, was born on the 22nd
of September 1515. Her father was the leader of the German
Protestants, and the princess, after the death of Jane Seymour,
was regarded by Cromwell as a suitable wife for Henry VIII.
She had been brought up in a narrow retirement, could speak no
language but her own, had no looks, no accomplishments and no
dowry, her only recommendations being her proficiency in
needlework, and her meek and gentle temper. Nevertheless her
picture, painted by Holbein by the king's command (now in the
Louvre, a modern copy at Windsor), pleased Henry and the
marriage was arranged, the treaty being signed on the 24th of
September 1539. The princess landed at Deal on the 27th of
December; Henry met her at Rochester on the 1st of January
1540, and was so much abashed at her appearance as to forget
to present the gift he had brought for her, but nevertheless
controlled himself sufficiently to treat her with courtesy. The
next day he expressed openly his dissatisfaction at her looks;
" she was no better than a Flanders mare." The attempt to
prove a pre-contract with the son of the duke of Lorraine broke
down, and Henry was forced to resign himself to the sacrifice.
On the wedding morning, however, the 6th of January 1540, he
declared that no earthly thing would have induced him to marry
her but the fear of driving the duke of Cleves into the arms of
the emperor. Shortly afterwards Henry had reason to regret
the policy which had identified him so closely with the German
Protestantism, and denied reconciliation with the emperor.
Cromwell's fall was the result, and the chief obstacle to the
repudiation of his wife being thus removed, Henry declared the
marriage had not been and could not be consummated; and did
not scruple to cast doubts on his wife's honour. On the 9th of
July the marriage was declared null and void by convocation,
and an act of parliament to the same effect was passed immedi-
ately. Henry soon afterwards married Catherine Howard. On
first hearing of the king's intentions, Anne swooned away, but on
recovering, while declaring her case a very hard and sorrowful
one from the great love which she bore to the king, acquiesced
quietly in the arrangements made for her by Henry, by which
she received lands to the value of £4000 a year, renounced the
title of queen for that of the king's sister, and undertook not to
leave the kingdom. In a letter to her brother, drawn up by
Gardiner by the king's direction, she acknowledged the unreality
of the marriage and the king's kindness and generosity. Anne
spent the rest of her life happily in England at Richmond or
Bletchingley, occasionally visiting the court, and being described
as joyous as ever, and wearing new dresses every day! An
attempt to procure her reinstalment on the disgrace of Catherine
Howard failed, and there was no foundation for the report that
she had given birth to a child of which Henry was the reputed
father. She was present at the marriage of Henry with Catherine
Parr and at the coronation of Mary. She died on the 28th of
July 1557 at Chelsea, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.

See Lives of the Queens of England, by A. Strickland, iii. (1851);
The Wives of Henry VIII., by M. Hume (1905); Henry VIII., by
A. F. Pollard (1905) '; Four Original Documents relating to the
Marriage of Henry VIII. to Anne of Cleves, ed. by E. and G. Goldsmid
(1886); for the pseudo Anne of Cleves see Allgemeine deutsche
Biographie, i. 467. (P. C. Y.)

ANNE OF DENMARK (1574-1619), queen of James I. of
England and VI. of Scotland, daughter of King Frederick II. of
Denmark and Norway and of Sophia, daughter of Ulric III., duke
of Mecklenburg, was born on the 1 2th of December 1 574. On the
20th of August 1589, in spite of Queen Elizabeth's opposition,

7°

ANNE OF FRANCE— ANNEALING

she was married by proxy to King James, without dower, the
alliance, however, settling definitely the Scottish claims to
the Orkney and Shetland Islands. Her voyage to Scotland was
interrupted by a violent storm — for the raising of which several
Danish and Scottish witches were burned or executed — which
drove her on the coast of Norway, whither the impatient James
came to meet her, the marriage taking place at Opslo (now
Christiania) on the 23rd of November. The royal couple, after
visiting Denmark, arrived in Scotland in May 1 590. The position
of queen consort to a Scottish king was a difficult and perilous
one, and Anne was attacked in connexion with various scandals
and deeds of violence, her share in which, however, is supported
by no evidence. The birth of an heir to the throne (Prince
Henry) in 1504 strengthened her position and influence; but
the young prince, much to her indignation, was immediately
withdrawn from her care and entrusted to the keeping of the
earl and countess of Mar at Stirling Castle; in 1595 James gave
a written command, forbidding them in case of his death to give
up the prince to the queen till he reached the age of eighteen.
The king's intention was, no doubt, to secure himself and the
prince against the unruly nobles, though the queen's Roman
Catholic tendencies were probably another reason for his decision.
Brought up a Lutheran, and fond of pleasure, she had shown
no liking for Scottish Calvinism, and soon incurred rebukes on
account of her religion, " vanity," absence from church, " night
waking and balling." She had become secretly inclined to
Roman Catholicism, and attended mass with the king's conniv-
ance. On the death of Queen Elizabeth, on the 24th of March
1603, James preceded her to London. Anne took advantage
of his absence to demand possession of the prince, and, on the
" flat refusal " of the countess of Mar, fell into a passion, the
violence of which occasioned a miscarriage and endangered her
life. In June she followed the king to England (after distributing
all her effects in Edinburgh among her ladies) with the prince
and the coffin containing the body of her dead infant, and
reached Windsor on the 2nd of July, where amidst other forms
of good fortune she entered into the possession of Queen
Elizabeth's 6000 dresses.

On the 24th of July Anne was crowned with the king, when her
refusal to take the sacrament according to the Anglican use
created some sensation. She communicated on one occasion
subsequently and attended Anglican service occasionally; but
she received consecrated objects from Pope Clement VIII.,
continued to hear mass, and, according to Galluzzi, supported
the schemes for the conversion of the prince of Wales and of
England, and for the prince's marriage with a Roman Catholic
princess, which collapsed on his death in 161 2. She was claimed
as a convert by the Jesuits. 1 Nevertheless on her deathbed,
when she was attended by the archbishop of Canterbury and the
bishop of London, she used expressions which were construed
as a declaration of Protestantism. Notwithstanding religious
differences she lived in great harmony and affection with the
king, latterly, however, residing mostly apart. She helped to
raise Buckingham to power in the place of Somerset, maintained
friendly relations with him, and approved of his guidance and
control of the king. In spite of her birth and family she was at
first favourably inclined to Spain, disapproved of her daughter
Elizabeth's marriage with the elector palatine, and supported
the Spanish marriages for her sons, but subsequently veered
round towards France. She used all her influence in favour of
the unfortunate Raleigh, answering his petition to her for
protection with a personal letter of appeal to Buckingham to save
his life. " She carrieth no sway in state matters," however, it
was said of her in 1605, " and, praeter rem iixoriam, hath'no great
reach in other affairs." " She does not mix herself up in affairs,
though the king tells her anything she chooses to ask, and loves
and esteems her." 2 Her interest in state matters was only
occasional, and secondary to the pre-occupations of court
festivities, masks, progresses, dresses, jewels, which she much
enjoyed; the court being, says Wilson — whose severity cannot

1 Fasti S. J., by P. Joannis Drews (pub. 1723), p. 160.
2 Cal. of St. Pap. — Venetian, x. 513.

entirely suppress his admiration — " a continued maskarado,
where she and her ladies, like so many nymphs or Nereides,
appeared ... to the ravishment of the beholders," and " made
the night more glorious than the day." Occasionally she even
joined in the king's sports, though here her only recorded exploit
was her accidental shooting of James's " most principal and
special hound," Jewel. Her extravagant expenditure, returned
by Salisbury in 1605 at more than £50,000 and by Chamberlain
at her death at more than £84,000, was unfavourably contrasted
with the economy of Queen Elizabeth ; in spite of large allowances
and grants of estates which included Oatlands, Greenwich House
and Nonsuch, it greatly exceeded her income, her debts in 1616
being reckoned at nearly £10,000, while her jewelry and her
plate were valued at her death at nearly half a million. Anne
died after a long illness on the 2nd of March 1619, and was buried
in Westminster Abbey. She was generally regretted. The
severe Wilson, while rebuking her gaieties, allows that she was
" a good woman," and that her character would stand the most
prying investigation. She was intelligent and tactful, a faithful
wife, a devoted mother and a staunch friend. Besides several
children who died in infancy she had Henry, prince of Wales,
who- died in 161 2, Charles, afterwards King Charles I., and
Elizabeth, electress palatine and queen of Bohemia.

Bibliography.— See Dr A. W. Ward's article in the Diet, of Nat.
Biography, with authorities; Lives of the Queens of England, by
A. Strickland (I844), vii.; " Life and Reign of King James I.," by
A. Wilson, in History of England (1706); Isloria del Granducato di
Toscana, by R. Galluzzi (1781), lib. vi. cap. ii. ; Cal. of State Papers-
Domestic and Venetian; Hist. MSS. Comtn. Series, MSS. of Marq.
of Salisbury, iii. 420, 438, 454, ix. 54; Harleian MSS. 5176, art. 22,
293, art. 106. Also see bibliography to the article on James I.

(P. C. Y.)

ANNE OF FRANCE (1460-1522), dame de Beaujeu, was the
eldest daughter of Louis XI. and Charlotte of Savoy. Louis XL
betrothed her at first to Nicholas of Anjou, and afterwards
offered her hand successively to Charles the Bold, to the duke
of Brittany, and even to his own brother, Charles of France.
Finally she married Pierre de Beaujeu, a younger brother of
the duke of Bourbon. Before his death Louis XI. entrusted
to Pierre de Beaujeu and Anne the entire charge of his son,
Charles VIII., a lad of thirteen; and from 1483 to 1492 the
Beaujeus exercised a virtual regency. Anne was a true daughter
of Louis XL Energetic, obstinate, cunning and unscrupulous,
she inherited, too, her father's avarice and rapacity. Although
they made some concessions, the Beaujeus succeeded in main-
taining the results of the previous reign, and in triumphing over
the feudal intrigues and coalitions, as was seen from the meeting
of the estates general in 1484, and the results # of the " Mad
War " (1485) and the war with Brittany (1488)*; and in spite
of the efforts of Maximilian of Austria they concluded the marriage
of Charles VIII. and Anne, duchess of Brittany (1491). But a
short time afterwards the king disengaged himself completely
from their tutelage, to the great detriment of the kingdom.
In 1488 Pierre de Beaujeu had succeeded to the Bourbonnais,
the last great fief of France. He died in 1503, but Anne survived
him twenty years. From her establishments at Moulins and
Chan telle in the Bourbonnais she continued henceforth vigorously
to defend the Bourbon cause against the royal family. Anne's
only daughter, Suzanne, had married in 1505 her cousin, Charles
of Bourbon, count of Montpensier, the future constable; and
the question of the succession of Suzanne, who died in 1521,
was the determining factor of the treason of the constable
de Bourbon (1523). Anne had died some months before, on
the 14th of November 1522.

See P. Pelicier, Essai sur le gouvernement de la Dame de Beaujeu
(Chartres, 1882). (J. I.)

ANNEALING, HARDENING AND TEMPERING. Annealing

(from the prefix an, and the old English aelan, to burn or bake;

the meaning has probably also been modified from the French

nieler, to enamel black on gold or silver, from the med. Lat.

nigellare, to make black; cf. niello) is a process of treating a

metal or alloy by heat with the object of imparting to it a certain

condition of ductility, extensibility, or a certain grade of softness

or hardness, with all that is involved in and follows from those

ANNEALING

Conditions. The effect may be mechanical only, or a chemical
change may take place also. Sometimes the causes are obvious,
in other cases they are more or less obscure. But of the actual
facts, and the immense importance of this operation as well as
of the related ones of tempering and hardening in shop processes,
there is no question.

When the treatment is of a mechanical character only, there
can be no reasonable doubt that the common belief is correct,
namely, that the metallic crystals or fibres undergo a molecular
rearrangement of some kind. When it is of a chemical character,
the process is one of cementation, due to the occlusion of gases
in the molecules of the metals.

Numerous examples of annealing due to molecular rearrange-
ment might be selected from the extensive range of workshop
operations. The following are a few only: — when a boiler-
maker bends the edges of a plate of steel or iron by hammer
blows (flanging), he does so in successive stages (heats), at each
of which the plate has to be reheated, with inevitable cooling
down during the time work is being done upon it. The result
is that the plate becomes brittle over the parts which have
been subjected to this treatment; and this brittleness is not
uniformly distributed, but is localized, and is a source of weakness,
inducing a liability to crack. If, however, the plate when
finished is raised to a full red heat, and allowed to cool down
away from access of cool air, as in a furnace, or underneath wood
ashes, it resumes its old ductility. The plate has been annealed,
and is as safe as it was before it was flanged. Again, when a
sheet of thin metal is forced to assume a shape very widely
different from its original plane aspect, as by hammering, or by
drawing out in a press — a cartridge case being a familiar ex-
ample — it is necessary to anneal it several times during the
progress of the operation. Without such annealing it would
never arrive at the final stage desired, but would become torn
asunder by the extension of its metallic fibres. Cutting tools
are made of steel having sufficient carbon to afford capacity
for hardening. Before the process is performed, the condition
in which the carbon is present renders the steel so hard and tough
as to render the preliminary turning or shaping necessary in
many cases (e.g. in milling cutters) a tedious operation. To lessen
this labour, the steel is first annealed. In this case it is brought
to a low red heat, and allowed to cool away from the air. It
can then be machined with comparative ease and be subsequently
hardened or tempered. When a metallic structure has endured
long service a state of fatigue results. Annealing is, where
practicable, resorted to in order to restore the original strength.
A familiar illustration is that of chains which are specially liable
to succumb to constant overstrain if continued for only a year
or two. This is so well known that the practice is regularly
adopted of annealing the chains at regular intervals.' They
are put into a clear hot furnace and raised to a low red heat,
continued for a few hours, and then allowed to cool down in the
furnace after the withdrawal of the source of heat. Before the
annealing the fracture of a link would be more crystalline than
afterwards.

In these examples, and others of which these are typical,
two conditions are essential, one being the grade of temperature,
the other the cooling. The temperature must never be so high
as to cause the metal to become overheated, with risk of burning,
nor so low as to prevent the penetration of the substance with
a good volume of heat. It must also be continued for sufficient
time. More than this cannot be said. Each particular piece
of work requires its own treatment and period, and nothing
but experience of similar work will help the craftsman. The
cooling must always be gradual, such as that which results
from removing the source of heat, as by drawing a furnace fire,
or covering with non-conducting substances.

The chemical kind of annealing is specifically that employed
in the manufacture of malleable cast iron. In this process,
castings are made of white iron, — a brittle quality which has
its carbon wholly in the combined state. These castings, when
subjected to heat for a period of ten days or a fortnight, in closed
boxes, in the presence of substances containing oxygen, become

highly ductile. This change is due to the absorption of the carbon
by the oxygen in the cementing material, a comparatively pure
soft iron being left behind. The result is that the originally
hard, brittle castings after this treatment may be cut with a
knife, and be bent double and twisted into spirals without
fracturing.

The distinction between hardening and tempering is one of
degree only, and both are of an opposite character to annealing.
Hardening, in the shop sense, signifies the making of a piece
of steel about as hard as it can be made — " glass hard " — while
tempering indicates some stage in an infinite range between
thi fully hardened and the annealed or softened condition.
As a matter of convenience only, hardening is usually a stage
in the work of tempering. It is easier to harden first, and " let
down " to the temper required, than to secure the exact heat
for tempering by raising the material to it. This is partly due
to the long established practice of estimating temperature by
colour tints; but this is being rapidly invaded by new methods
in which the temper heat is obtained in furnaces provided with
pyrometers, by means of which exact heat regulation is readily
secured, and in which the heating up is done gradually. Such
furnaces are used for hardening balls for bearings, cams, small
toothed wheels and similar work, as well as for tempering
springs, milling cutters and other- kinds of cutting tools. But
fOr the cutting tools having single edges, as used in engineers'
shops, the colour test is still generally retained.

In the practice of hardening and tempering tools by colour,
experience is the only safe guide. Colour tints vary with degrees
of light; steels of different brands require different treatment
in regard to temperature and quenching; and steels even of
identical chemical composition do not always behave alike when
tempered. Every fresh brand of steel has, therefore, to be
treated at first in a tentative and experimental fashion in order
to secure the best possible results. The larger the -masses of
steel, and the greater the disparity in dimensions of adjacent
parts, the greater is the risk of cracking and distortion. Ex-
cessive length and the presence of keen angles increase the
difficulties of hardening. The following points have to be
observed in the work of hardening and tempering.

A grade of steel must be selected of suitable quality for the
purpose for which it has to be used. There are a number of such
grades, ranging from about if to J % content of carbon, and
each having its special utility: Overheating must be avoided,
as that burns the steel and injures or ruins it. A safe rule is never
to heat any grade of steel to a temperature higher than that at
which experience proves it will take the temper required. Heat-
ing must be regular and thorough throughout, and must therefor^
be slowly done when dealing with thick masses. Contact with
sulphurous fuel must be avoided. Baths of molten alloys of lead
and tin are used when very exact temperatures are required,
and when articles have thick and thin parts adjacent. But the
gas furnaces have the same advantages in a more handy form.
Quenching is done in water, oil, or in various hardening mixtures,
and sometimes in solids. Rain water is the principal hardening
agent, but various saline compounds are often added to intensify
its action. Water that has been long in use is preferred to fresh.
Water is generally used cold, but in many cases it is warmed to
about 80° F., as for milling cutters and taps, warmed water
being less liable to crack the cutters than cold. Oil is preferred
to water for small springs, for guns and for many cutters. Mer-
cury hardens most intensely, because it does not evaporate, and
so does lead or wax for the same reason; water evaporates,
and in the spheroidal state, as steam, leaves contact with the
steel. This is the reason why long and large objects are moved
vertically about in the water during quenching, to bring them
into contact with fresh cold water.

There is a good deal of mystery affected by many of the
hardeners, who are very particular about the composition of
their baths, various oils and salts being used in an infinity of
combinations. Many of these are the result of long and successful
experience, some are of the nature of " fads." A change of bath
may involve injury to the steel. The most difficult articles to

ANNECY— ANNELIDA

harden are springs, milling cutters, taps, reamers. It would be
easy to give scores of hardening compositions.

Hardening is performed the more efficiently the more rapidly
the quenching is done. In the case of thick objects, however,
especially milling cutters, there is risk of cracking, due to the
difference of temperature on the outside and in the central body
of metal. Rapid hardening is impracticable in such objects.
This is the cause of the distortion of long taps and reamers, and
of their cracking, and explains why their teeth are often protected
with soft soap and other substances.

The presence of the body of heat in a tool is taken advantage
of in the work of tempering. The tool, say a chisel, is dipped,
a length of 2 in. or more being thus hardened and blackened.
It is then removed, and a small area rubbed rapidly with a bit of
grindstone, observations being made of the changing tints which
gradually appear as the heat is communicated from the hot
shank to the cooled end. The heat becomes equalized, and at
the same time the approximate temperature for quenching for
temper is estimated by the appearance of a certain tint; at that
instant the article is plunged and allowed to remain until quite
cold. For every different class of tool a different tint is required.

" Blazing off " is a particular method of hardening applied to
small springs. The springs are heated and plunged in oils, fats,
or tallow, which is burned off previous to cooling in air, or in the
ashes of the forge, or in oil, or water usually. They are hardened,
reheated and tempered, and the tempering by blazing off is
repeated for heavy springs. The practice varies almost infinitely
with dimensions, quality of steel, and purpose to which the
springs have to be applied.

The range of temper for most cutting tools lies between a pale
straw or yellow, and a light purple or plum colour. The corres-
ponding range of temperatures is about 430 F. to 530° F.,
respectively. " Spring temper " is higher, from dark purple to
blue, or 550° F. to 630 F. In many fine tools the range of
temperature possible between good and poor results lies within
from 5 to 10° F.

There is another kind of hardening which is of a superficial
character only — " case hardening." It is employed in cases
where toughness has to be combined with durability of surface.
It is a cementation process, practised on wrought iron and mild
steel, and applied to the link motions of engines, to many pins
and studs, eyes of levers, &c. The articles are hermetically luted
in an iron box, packed with nitrogenous and saline substances
such as potash, bone dust, leather cuttings, and salt. The box is
placed in a furnace, and allowed to remain for periods of from
twelve to thirty-six hours, during which period the surface of the
metal, to a depth of ^j to ^ in., is penetrated by the cement-
ing materials, and converted into steel. The work is then thrown
into water and quenched.

A muffle furnace, employed for annealing, hardening and
tempering is shown in fig. 1 ; the heat being obtained by means

Fig. 1. — Automatic Oil Muffle Furnace.

of petroleum, which is contained in the tank A, and is kept under
pressure by pumping at intervals with the wooden handle, so
that when the valve B is opened the oil is vaporized by passing
through a heating coil at the furnace entrance, and when ignited
burns fiercely as a gas flame. This passes into the furnace
through the two holes, C, C, and plays under and up around the

muffle D, standing on a fireclay slab. The doorway is closed by
two fireclay blocks at E. A temperature of over 2000 F. can be
obtained in furnaces of this class, and the heat is of course under
perfect control.

A reverberatory type of gas furnace, shown in fig. 2, differs
from the oil furnace in having the flames brought down through
the roof, by pipes A,A,A, playing on work laid on the fireclay
slab B, thence passing under this and out through the elbow-

Fig. 2. — Reverberatory Furnace,

pipe C. The hinged doors, D, give a full opening to the interior
of the furnace. It will be noticed in both these furnaces (by
Messrs Fletcher, Russell & Co., Ltd.) that the iron casing is a
mere shell, enclosing very thick firebrick linings, to retain the
heat effectively. (J. G. H.)

ANNECY, the chief town of the department of Haute Savoie
in France. Pop. (1906) 10,763. It is situated at a height of
1470 ft., at the northern end of the lake of Annecy, and is 25 m.
by rail N.E. of Aix les Bains. The surrounding country presents
many scenes of beauty. The town itself is a pleasant residence,
and contains a 16th century cathedral church, an 18th century
bishop's palace, a 14th-! 6th century castle (formerly the resi-
dence of the counts of the Genevois), and the reconstructed
convent of the Visitation, wherein now reposes the body of St
Francois de Sales (born at the castle of Sales, close by, in 1 567 ;
died at Lyons in 1622), who held the see from 1602 to 1622.
There is also a public library, with 20,000 volumes, and various
scientific collections, and a public garden, with a statue of the
chemist Berthollet (1748-1822), who was born not far off. The
bishop's see of Geneva was transferred hither in 1535, after the
Reformation, but suppressed in 1801, though revived in 1822.
There are factories of linen and cotton goods, and of felt hats,
paper mills, and a celebrated bell foundry at Annecy le Vieux.
This last-named place existed in Roman times. Annecy itself
was in the 10th century the capital of the counts of the Genevois,
from whom it passed in 1401 to the counts of Savoy, and became
French in i860 on the annexation of Savoy.

The Lake of Annecy is about 9 m. in length by a m. in
breadth, its surface being 1465 ft. above the level of the sea.
It discharges its waters, by means of the Thioux canal, into the
Fier, a tributary of the Rhone. (W. A. B. C.)

ANNELIDA, a name derived from J. B. P. Lamarck's term
AnnMides, now used to denote a major phylum or division of
coelomate invertebrate animals. Annelids are segmented worms,
and differ from the Arthropoda (q.v.), which they closely resemble
in many respects, by the possession of a portion of the coelom
traversed by the alimentary canal. In the latter respect, and ir*
the fact that they frequently develop by a metamorphosis, they
approach the Mollusca (q.v.), but they differ from that group
notably in the occurrence of metameric segmentation affecting
many of the systems of organs. The body- wall is highly muscular
and, except in a few probably specialized cases, possesses
chitinous spines, the setae, which are secreted by the ectoderm
and are embedded in pits of the skin. They possess a modi-
fied anterior end, frequently with special sense organs, forming
a head, a segmented nervous system, consisting of a pair
of anterior, dorsally-placed ganglia, a ring surrounding the

ANNET— ANNEXATION

alimentary canal, and a double ventral ganglionated chain, a
definite vascular system, an excretory system consisting of
nephridia, and paired generative organs formed from the coelomic
epithelium. They are divided as follows: (i) Haplodrili (q.v.)
or Archiannelida; (2) Chaetopoda (q.v.); (3) Myzostomida (q.v.),
probably degenerate Polychaeta; (4) Hirudinea (see Chaetopoda
and Leech); (5) Echiuroidea (q.v.). (P. CM.)

ANNET, PETER (1693-1769), English deist,issaid to have been
born at Liverpool. A schoolmaster by profession, he became
prominent owing to his attacks on orthodox theologians, and his
membership of a semi-theologkal debating society, the Robin
Hood Society, which met at the " Robin Hood and Little John "
in Butcher Row. To him has been attributed a work called A
History of theManafterGod'sownHeart (1 761), intended to show
that George II. was insulted by a current comparison with David.
The book is said to have inspired Voltaire's Saul. It is also
attributed to one John Noorthouck (Noorthook) . In 1 763 he was
condemned for blasphemous libel in his paper called the Free
Enquirer (nine numbers only). After his release he kept a small
school in Lambeth, one of his pupils being James Stephen (1758-
1832), who became master in Chancery. Annet died on the 18th
of January 1769. He stands between the earlier philosophic
deists and the later propagandists of Paine's school, and " seems
to have been the first freethought lecturer " (J. M. Robertson) ;
his essays (A Collection of the Tracts of a certain Free Enquirer,
1 739-1 745) are forcible but lack refinement. He invented a
system of shorthand (2nd ed., with a copy of verses by Joseph
Priestley).

ANNEXATION (Lat. ad, to, and nexus, joining), in interna-
tional law, the act by which a state adds territory to its dominions ;
the term is also used generally as a synonym for acquisition. The
assumption of a protectorate over another state, or of a sphere of
influence, is not strictly annexation, the latter implying the
complete displacement in the annexed territory of the government
or state by which it was previously ruled. Annexation, may be
the consequence of a voluntary cession from one state to another,
or of conversion from a protectorate or sphere of influence, or of
mere occupation in uncivilized regions, or of conquest. The
cession of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany by France, although
brought about by the war of 1870, was for the purposes of interna-
tional law a voluntary cession. Under the treaty of the 17th of
December 1885, between the French republic and the queen of
Madagascar, a French protectorate was established over this
island. In 1896 this protectorate was converted by France into
an annexation, and Madagascar then became " French territory."
The formal annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina by Austria (Oct. 5,
1908) was an unauthorized conversion of an " occupation "
authorized by the Treaty of Berlin (1878), which had, however,
for years operated as a de facto annexation. A recent case of
conquest was that effected by the South African War of 1899-
1902, in which the Transvaal republic and the Orange Free
State were extinguished, first de facto by occupation of the whole
of their territory, and then dejure by terms of surrender entered
into by the Boer generals acting as a government.

By annexation, as between civilized peoples, the annexing state
takes over the whole succession with the rights and obligations
attaching to the ceded territory, subject only to any modifying
conditions contained in the treaty of cession. These, however,
are binding only as between the parties to them. In the case of
the annexation of the territories of the Transvaal republic and
Orange Free State, a rather complicated situation arose out of
the facts, on the one hand, that the ceding states closed their own
existence and left no recourse to third parties against the previous
ruling authority, and, on the other, that, having no means owing
to the de facto British occupation, of raising money by taxation,
the dispossessed governments raised money by selling certain
securities, more especially a large holding of shares in the South
African Railway Company, to neutral purchasers. The British
government repudiated these sales as having been made by a
government which the British government had already displaced.
The question of at what point, in a war of conquest, the state
succession becomes operative is one of great delicacy. As early

as the 6th of January 1900, the high commissioner at Cape Town
issued a proclamation giving notice that H. M. government would
" not recognize as valid or effectual " any conveyance, transfer
or transmission of any property made by the government of the
Transvaal republic or Orange Free State subsequently to the 10th
of October 1899, the date of the commencement of the war. A
proclamation forbidding transactions with a state which might
still be capable of maintaining its independence could obviously
bind only those subject to the authority of the state issuing it.
Like paper blockades (see Blockade) and fictitious occupations
of territory, such premature proclamations are viewed by interna-
tional jurists as not being jure gentium. The proclamation was
succeeded, on the 9th of March 1900, by another of the high
commissioner at Cape Town, reiterating the notice, but confining
it to " lands, railways, mines or mining rights." And on the 1st
of September 1900 Lord Roberts proclaimed at Pretoria the
annexation of the territories of the Transvaal republic to the
British dominions. That the war continued for nearly two years
after this proclamation shows how fictitious the claim of annexa-
tion was. The difficulty which arose out of the transfer of the
South African Railway shares held by the Transvaal government
was satisfactorily terminated by the purchase by the British
government of the total capital of the company from the different
groups of shareholders (see on this case, Sir Thomas Barclay, Law
Quarterly Review, July 1905; and Professor Westlake, in the same
Review, October 1905).

In a judgment of the judicial committee of the privy council in
1899 (Coote v. Sprigg, A.C. 572), Lord Chancellor Halsbury made
an important distinction as regards the obligations of state
succession. The case in question was a claim of title against the
crown, represented by the government of Cape Colony. It was
made by persons holding a concession of certain rights in eastern
Pondoland from a native chief. Before the grantees had taken up
their grant by acts of possession, Pondoland was annexed to Cape
Colony. The colonial government refused to recognize the grant
on different grounds, the chief of them being that the concession
conferred no legal rights before the annexation and therefore
could confer none afterwards, a sufficiently good ground in itself.
The judicial committee, however, rested its decision chiefly on the
allegation that the acquisition of the territory was an act of state
and that " no municipal court had authority to enforce such an
obligation " as the duty of the new government to respect existing
titles. " It is no answer," said Lord Halsbury, " to say that by
the ordinary principles of international law private property is
respected by the sovereign which accepts the cession and assumes
the duties and legal obligations of the former sovereign with
respect to such private property within the ceded territory. All
that can be meant by such a proposition is that according to the
well-understood rules of international law a change of sovereignty
by cession ought not to affect private property, but no municipal
tribunal has authority to enforce such an obligation. And if
there is either an express or a well-understood bargain between
the ceding potentate and the government to which the cession is
made that private property shall be respected, that is only a
bargain which can be enforced by sovereign against sovereign in
the ordinary course of diplomatic pressure." In an editorial note
on this case the Law Quarterly Review of Jan. 1900 (p. 1),
dissenting from the view of the judicial committee that "no
municipal tribunal has authority to enforce such an obligation,"
the writer observes that "we can read this only as meant to lay
down that, on the annexation of territory even by peaceable
cession, there is a total abeyance of justice until the will of the
annexing power is expressly made known; and that, although
the will of that power is commonly to respect existing private
rights, there is no rule or presumption to that effect of which any
court must or indeed can take notice." So construed the doctrine
is not only contrary to international law, but according to so
authoritative an exponent of the common law as Sir F. Pollock,
there is no warrant for it in English common law.

An interesting point of American constitutional law has arisen
out of the cession of the Philippines to the United States, through
the fact that the federal constitution does not lend itself to the

ANNIC£ltIS-k/\NNONA

exercise by the federal congress of unlimited powers, such as are
vested in the British parliament. The sole authority for the
powers of the federal congress is a written constitution with
defined 'powers. Anything done in excess of those powers is null
and void. The Supreme Court of the United States, on the other
hand, has declared that, by the constitution, a government is
ordained and established " for the United States of America "
and not for countries Outside their limits (Ross's Case, 140 U.S.
453, 464), and that no such power to legislate for annexed
territories as that vested in the British crown in council is enjoyed
by the president of the United States (Field v. Clark, 143 U.S. 640,
692). Every detail connected with the administration of the
territories acquired from Spain Under the treaty of Paris
(December 10, 1898) has given rise to minute discussion.

See Carman F. Randolph, Law and Policy of Annexation (New York
and London, 1901); Charles Henry Butler, Treaty-making Power of
the United States (New York, 1902), voL.i. p. 79 et seq. (T. Ba.)

> ANNICERIS, a Greek philosopher of the Cyrenaic school.
There is no certain information as to his date, but from the
statement that he was a disciple of Paraebates it seems likely
that he was a contemporary of Alexander the Great. A follower of
Aristippus, he denied that pleasure is the general end of human
life. To each separate action there is a particular end, namely
the pleasure which actually results from it Secondly, pleasure
is not merely the negation of pain, inasmuch as death ends all
pain and yet cannot be regarded as pleasure. There is, however,
an absolute pleasure in certain virtues such as belong to the love
of country, parents and friends. In these relations a man will
have pleasure, even though it may result in painful and even
fatal consequences. Friendship is not merely for the satisfaction
of our needs, but is in itself a source of pleasure. He maintains
further, in opposition to most of the Cyrenaic school, that
wisdom or prudence alone is an insufficient guarantee against
error. The wise man is he who has acquired a habit of wise
action; human wisdom is liable to lapses at any moment.
Diogenes Laertius says that Anniceris ransomed Plato from
Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse, for twenty minas. If we are
right in placing Anniceris in the latter half of the 4th century,
it is clear that the reference here is to an earlier Anniceris, who,
according to Aelian, was a celebrated charioteer.

ANNING, MARY (1 799-1847), English fossil-collector, the
daughter of Richard Anning, a cabinet-maker, was born at Lyme
Regis in May 1 799. Her father was one of the earliest collectors
and dealers in fossils, obtained chiefly from the Lower Lias in that
famous locality. When but a child in 181 1 she discovered the
first specimen of Ichthyosaurus which was brought into scientific
notice; in 1821 she found remains of a new saurian, the
Plesiosaurus, and in 1828 she procured, for the first time in England,
remains of a pterodactyl (Dimorphodon) . She died on the 9th
of March 1S47.

ANNISTON, a city and the county seat of Calhoun county,
Alabama, U.S.A., in the north-eastern part of the state, about
63 m. E. by N. of Birmingham. Pop. (1890) 9998; (1900),
9695, of whom 3669 were of negro descent: dcjio census)
12,794. Anniston is served by the Southern, the Seaboard
Air Line, and the Louisville & Nashville railways. The city is
situated on the slope of Blue Mountain, a chain of the Blue
Ridge, and is a health resort. It is the seat of the Noble Institute
(for girls), established in 1886 by Samuel Noble (1834-1888), a
wealthy iron-founder, and of the Alabama Presbyterian College
for Men (1905). There are vast quantities of iron ore in the
vicinity of the city, the Coosa coal-fields being only 25 m. distant.
Anniston is an important manufacturing city, the principal
industries being the manufacture of iron, steei and cotton. In
1905 the city's factory products were valued at $2,525,455.
An iron furnace was established on the site of Anniston during the
Civil War, but it was destroyed by the federal troops in 1865;
and in 1872 it was rebuilt on a much larger scale. The city was
founded in 1 8 7 2 as a private enterprise, by the Woodstock Iron
Company, organized by Samuel Noble and Gen. Daniel Tyler
(1799-1882); but it was not opened for general settlement until
twelve years later. It was chartered as a city in 1879.

ANNO, or HannO, SAINT (e. 1010-1075), archbishop of Cologne,
belonged to a Swabian family, and was educated at Bamberg.
He became confessor to the emperor Henry III., who appointed
him archbishop of Cologne in 1056. He took a prominent part in
thegovernmentof Germany during the minority of King Henry IV.,
and was the leader of the party which in 1062 seized the person
of Henry, and deprived his mother, the empress Agnes, of
power. For a short time Anno exercised the chief authority in
the kingdom, but he was soon obliged to share this with Adalbert,
archbishop of Bremen, retaining for himself the supervision of
Henry's education and the title of magister. The office of
chancellor of the kingdom of Italy was at this period regarded as
an appanage of the archbishopric of CoIogne,and this was probably
the reason why Anno had a considerable share in settling the
papal dispute in 1064. He declared Alexander II. to be the
rightful pope at a synod held at Mantua in May 1064, and took
other steps to secure his recognition. Returning to Germany,
he found the chief power in the hands of Adalbert, and as he was
disliked by the young king, he left the court but returned and
regained some of his former influence when Adalbert fell from
power in 1066. He succeeded in putting down a rising against
his authority in Cologne in 1074, and it was reported he had
allied himself with William the Conqueror, king of England,
against the emperor. Having cleared himself of this charge,
Anno took no further part in public business, and died at Cologne
on the 4th of December 1075. He was buried in the monastery of
Siegburg and was canonized in n 83 by Pope Lucius III. He
was a founder of monasteries and a builder of churches, advocated
clerical celibacy and was a strict disciplinarian. He was a man
of great energy and ability, whose action in recognizing Alexander
II. was of the utmost consequence for Henry IV. and for
Germany.

There is a Vita Annonis, written about 1100, by a monk of Sieg-
burg, but this is of slight value, it appears in the Monumenta
Germaniae historica: Scriptores, Bd. xi. (Hanover and Berlin,
1 826-1892). There is an "Epistola ad monachos Malmundarienses"
by Anno in the Neues Archiv der Gesellschaft fur alter e deutsche
Geschichtskunde, Bd. xiv. (Hanover, 1876 seq.). See also the
Annolied, or Incerti poetae Teutonics rhythmus de S. Anndne, written
about 1 180, and edited by J. Kehrein (Frankfort, 1865); Th.
Lindner, Anno II. der Heilige, Erzbischof von Koln (Leipzig, 1869).

ANNOBON, or Anno Bom, an island in the Gulf of Guinea, in
1° 24' S. and 5 35' E., belonging to Spain. It is no m. S.W. of
St Thomas. Its length is about 4 m., its breadth 2, and its
area 6f sq. m. Rising in some parts nearly 3000 ft. above
the sea, it presents a succession of beautiful valleys and
steep mountains, covered with rich woods and luxuriant
vegetation. The inhabitants, some 3000 in number, are negroes
and profess belief in the Roman Catholic faith. The
chief town and residence of the governor is called St Antony
(San Antonio de Praia). The roadstead is tolerably safe, and
passing vessels take advantage of it in order to obtain water
and fresh provisions, of which Annobon contains an abundant
supply. The island was discovered by the Portuguese on the
1st of January 1473, from which circumstance it received its
name ( = New Year). Annobon, together with Fernando Po, was
ceded to Spain by the Portuguese in 1 7 78. The islanders revolted
against their new masters and a state of anarchy ensued, leading,
it is averred, to an arrangement by which the island was adminis-
tered by a body of five natives, each of whom held the office of
governor during the period that elapsed till ten ships touched at
the island. In the latter part of the 19th century the authority
of Spain was re-established.

ANNONA (from Lat. annus, year), in Roman mythology, the
personification of the produce of the year. She is represented
in works of art, often together with Ceres, with a cornucopia
(horn of plenty) in her arm, and a ship's prow in the back-
ground, indicating the transport of grain over the sea. She
frequently occurs on coins of the empire, standing between a
modius (corn-measure) and the prow of a galley, with ears of corn
in one liand and a cornucopia in the other; sometimes she holds
a rudder or an anchor. The Latin word itself has various mean-
ings: (1) the produce of the year's harvest; (2) all means of

ANNONAY— ANNUITY

subsistence, especially grain stored in the public granaries for
provisioning the city; (3) the market-price of commodities,
especially corn; (4) a direct tax in kind, levied in republican
times in several provinces, chiefly employed in imperial times
for distribution amongst officials and the support of the soldiery.

In order to ensure a supply of corn sufficient to enable it to be
sold at a very low price, it was procured in large quantities from
Umbria, Etruria and Sicily. Almost down to the times of the
empire, the care of the corn-supply formed part of the aedile's
duties, although in 440 B.C. (if the statement in Livy iv. 12, 13
is correct, which is doubtful) the senate appointed a special
officer, called praefectus annonae, with greatly extended powers.
As a consequence of the second Punic War, Roman agriculture
was at a standstill; accordingly, recourse was had to Sicily and
Sardinia (the first two Roman provinces) in order to keep up the
supply of corn; a tax of one- tenth was imposed on it, and its
export to any country except Italy forbidden. The price at
which the corn was sold was always moderate; the corn law of
Gracchus (123 B.C.) made it absurdly low, and Clodius (58 B.C.)
bestowed it gratuitously. The number of the recipients of this
free gift grew so enormously, that both Caesar and Augustus were
obliged to reduce it. From the time of Augustus to the end of
the empire the number of those who were entitled to receive a
monthly allowance of corn on presenting a ticket was 200,000.
In the 3rd century, bread formed the dole. A praefectus annonae
was appointed by Augustus to superintend the corn-supply; he
was assisted by a large staff in Rome and the provinces, and had
jurisdiction in all matters connected with the corn-market. The
office lasted till the latest times of the empire.

ANNONAY, a town of south-eastern France, in the north of the
department of Ardeche, 50 m. S. of Lyons by the Paris-Lyons
railway. Pop. (1006) 15,403. Annonay is built on the hill
overlooking the meeting of the deep gorges of the Deome and the
Cance, the waters of which supply power to the factories of the
town. By means of a dam across the Ternay, an affluent of the
Deome, to the north-west of the town, a reservoir is provided,
in which an additional supply of water, for both industrial and
domestic purposes, is stored. At Annonay there is an obelisk
in honour of the brothers Montgolfier, inventors of the balloon,
who were natives of the place. A tribunal of commerce, a board
of trade-arbitrators, a branch of the Bank of France, and
chambers of commerce and of arts and manufactures are among
the public institutions. Annonay is the principal industrial
centre of its department, the chief manufactures being those of
leather, especially for gloves, paper, silk and silk goods, and
flour. Chemical manures, glue, gelatine, brushes, chocolate and
candles are also produced.

ANNOY (like the French ennui, a word traced by etymologists
to a Lat. phrase, in odio esse, to be " in hatred " or hateful of
someone), to vex or affect with irritation. In the sense of
'' nuisance," the noun " annoyance," apart from its obvious
meaning, is found in the English " Jury of Annoyance "
appointed by an act of 17 54 to report upon obstructions in the
highways.

ANNUITY (from Lat. annus, a year), a periodical payment,
made annually, or at more frequent intervals, either for a fixed
term of years, or during the continuance of a given life, or a com-
bination of lives. In technical language an annuity is said to be
payable for an assigned status, this being a general word chosen
in preference to such words as " time," " term " or " period,"
because it may include more readily either a term of years
certain, or a life or combination of lives. The magnitude of the
annuity is the sum to be paid (and received) in the course of each
year. Thus, if £100 is to be received each year by a person, he is
said to have " an annuity of £100." If the payments are made
half-yearly, it is sometimes said that he has " a half-yearly
annuity of £100 "; but to avoid ambiguity, it is more commonly
said he has an annuity of £100, payable by half-yearly instal-
ments. The former expression, if clearly understood, is prefer-
able on account of its brevity. So we may have quarterly,
monthly, weekly, daily annuities, when the annuity is payable
by quarterly, monthly, weekly or daily instalments. An annuity-

is considered as accruing during each instant of the status for
which it is enjoyed, although it is only payable at fixed intervals.
If the enjoyment of an annuity is postponed until after the lapse
of a certain number of years, the annuity is said to be deferred.
If an annuity, instead of being payable at the end of each year,
half-year, &c, is payable in advance, it is called an annuity-due.

If an annuity is payable for a term of years independent of
any contingency, it is called an annuity certain; if it is to con-
tinue for ever, it is called a perpetuity; and if in. the latter case
it is not to commence until after a term of years, it is called a
deferred perpetuity. An annuity depending on the continuance
of an assigned life or lives, is sometimes called a life annuity;
but more commonly the simple term " annuity " is understood
to mean a life annuity, unless the . contrary is stated. A life
annuity, to cease in any event after a certain term of years, is
called a temporary annuity. The holder of an annuity is called
an annuitant, and the person on whose life the annuity depends
is called the nominee.

If not otherwise stated, it is always understood that an annuity
is payable yearly, and that the annual payment (or rent, as it is
sometimes called) is £1. It is, however, customary to consider
the annual payment to be, not £1, but simply 1, the reader
supplying whatever monetary unit he pleases, whether pound,
dollar, franc, Thaler, &c.

The annuity is the totality of the payments to be made (and
received), and is so understood by all writers on the subject;
but some have also used the word to denote an individual
payment (or rent), speaking, for instance, of the first or second
year's annuity, — a practice which is calculated to introduce
confusion and should therefore be carefully avoided.

Instances of perpetuities are the dividends upon the public
stocks in England, France and some other countries. Thus,
although it is usual to speak of £100 consols, the reality is the
yearly dividend which the government pays by quarterly instal-
ments. The practice of the French in this, as in many other
matters, is more logical. In speaking of their public funds {rentes)
they do not mention the ideal capital sum, but speak of the
annuity or annual payment that is received by the public
creditor. Other instances of perpetuities are the incomes derived
from the debenture stocks of railway companies, also the feu-
duties commonly payable on house property in Scotland. The
number of years' purchase which the perpetual annuities granted
by a government or a railway company realize in the open
market, forms a very simple test of the credit of the various
governments or railways.

Terminable Annuities are employed in the system of British
public finance as a means of reducing the National Debt (q.v.).
This result is attained by substituting for a perpetual annual
charge (or one lasting until the capital which it represents can
be paid off en bloc), an annual charge of a larger amount, but
lasting for a short term. The latter is so calculated as to pay off,
during its existence, the capital which it replaces, with interest
at an assumed or agreed rate, and under specified conditions.
The practical effect of the substitution of a terminable annuity
for an obligation of longer currency is to bind the present genera-
tion of citizens to increase its own obligations in the present and
near future in order to diminish those of its successors. This
end might be attained in other ways; for instance,, by setting
aside out of revenue a fixed annual sum for the purchase and
cancellation of debt (Pitt's method, in intention), or by fixing
the annual debt charge at a figure sufficient to provide a margin
for reduction of the principal of the debt beyond the amount
required for interest (Sir Stafford Northcote's method), or by
providing an annual surplus of revenue over expenditure (the
" Old Sinking Fund "), available for the same purpose. All
these methods have been tried in the course of British financial
history, and the second and third of them are still employed;
but on the whole the method of terminable annuities has been
the one preferred by chancellors of the exchequer and by parlia-
ment.

Terminable annuities, as employed by the British government,
fall under two heads: — (a) Those issued to, or held by private

ANNUITY

persons; (6) those held by government departments or by funds
under government control. The important difference between
these two classes is that an annuity under (a), once created,
cannot be modified except with the holder's consent, i.e. is
practically unalterable without a breach of public faith; whereas
an annuity under (b) can, if necessary, be altered by inter-
departmental arrangement under the authority of parliament.
Thus annuities of class (a) fulfil most perfectly the object of the
system as explained above; while those of class (b) have the
advantage that in times of emergency their operation can be
suspended without any inconvenience or breach of faith, with
the result that the resources of government can on such occasions
be materially increased, apart from any additional taxation.
For this purpose it is only necessary to retain as a charge on the
income of the year a sum equal to the (smaller) perpetual charge
which was originally replaced by the (larger) terminable charge,
whereupon the difference between the two amounts is temporarily
released, while ultimately the increased charge is extended for
a period equal to that for which it is suspended. Annuities of
class (a) were first instituted in 1808, but are at present mainly
regulated by an act of 1829. They may be granted either for
a specified life, or two lives, or for an arbitrary term of years;
and the consideration for them may take the form either of cash
or of government stock, the latter being cancelled when the
annuity is set up. Annuities (b) held by government departments
date from 1863. They have been created in exchange for per-
manent debt surrendered for cancellation, the principal opera-
tions having been effected in 1863, 1867, 1870, 1874, 1883 and
1899. Annuities of this class do not affect the public at all,
except of course in their effect on the market for government
securities. They are merely financial operations between the
government, in its capacity as the banker of savings banks and
other funds, and itself, in the capacity of custodian of the national
finances. Savings bank depositors are not concerned with the
manner in which government invests their money, their rights
being confined to the receipt of interest and the repayment of
deposits upon specified conditions. The case is, however,
different as regards forty millions of consols (included in the
above figures), belonging to suitors in chancery, which were
cancelled and replaced by a terminable annuity in 1883. As the
liability to the suitors in that case was for a specified amount of
stock, special arrangements were made to ensure the ultimate
replacement of the precise amount of stock cancelled.

Annuity Calculations— The mathematical theory of life
annuities is based upon a knowledge of the rate of mortality
among mankind in general, or among the particular class of
persons on whose lives the annuities depend. It involves a
mathematical treatment too complicated to be dealt with fully
in this place, and in practice it has been reduced to the form of
tables, which vary in different places, but which are easily
accessible. The history of the subject may, however, be sketched.
Abraham Demoivre, in his Annuities on Lives, propounded a very
simple law of mortality which is to the effect that, out of 86
children born alive, 1 will die every year until the last dies
between the ages of 85 and 86. This law agreed sufficiently well
at the middle ages of life with the mortality deduced from the
best observations of his time; but, as observations became more
exact, the approximation was found to be not sufficiently close.
This was particularly the case when it was desired to obtain the
value of joint life, contingent or other complicated benefits.
Therefore Demoivre's law is entirely devoid of practical utility.
No simple formula has yet been discovered that will represent
the rate of mortality with sufficient accuracy.

The rate of mortality at each age is, therefore, in practice
usually determined by a series of figures deduced from observa-
tion ; and the value of an annuity at any age is found from these
numbers by means of a series of arithmetical calculations. The
mortality table here given is an example of modern use.

The first writer who is known to have attempted to obtain, on
correct mathematical principles, the value of a life annuity, was
Jan De Witt, grand pensionary of Holland and West Friesland.
Our knowledge of his writings on the subject is derived from two

papers contributed by Frederick Hendriks to the Assurance
Magazine, vol. ii. p. 222, and vol. iii. p. 93. The former of these
contains a translation of De Witt's report upon the value of life
annuities, which was prepared in consequence of the resolution
passed by the states-general, on the 25th of April 1671, to nego-
tiate funds by life annuities, and which was distributed to the
members on the 30th of July 1671. The latter contains the
translation of a number of letters addressed by De Witt td
Burgomaster Johan Hudde, bearing dates from September 1670
to October 167 1. The existence of De Witt's report was well
known among his contemporaries, and Hendriks collected a
number of extracts from various authors referring to it; but the

Table of Mortality— Hm, Healthy Lives — Male.

Number Living and Dying at each Age, out of 10,000
entering at Age 10.

Age.

Living.

Dying.

Age.

Living.

Dying.

1 0,000

6791

129

9,921

6662

153

9,921

6509

150

9,881

6359

152

9,846

6207

156

9,806

6051

153

9.7 8 4

5898

184

9.784

5714

186

9,743

5528

191

9,684

5337

200

9,616

5137

206

9,56o

4931

215

9,493

4716

220

9,434

4496

220

9,36i

4276

237

9,297

4039

246

9,249

3793

213

9,i85

358o

222

9,125

3358

268

9,o54

3090

243

3°

8,987

74-

2847

300

3 1

8,913

2547

241

3 2

8,848

2306

245

8,774

2061

224

8,701 .

1837

226

8,625

1611

219

8,554

1392

I96

8,479

1 196

191

8,398

1005

173

8,311

832

172

8,223

660

119

4 1

8,142

85,

54i

"7 ,

4 2

8,057

424

7,97°

332

7,886

260

74 ; '

7,793

186

7,696

.90

150

7,600

107

116

7,493

106

7,387

7,274

120

7,154

124

7,030

120

6,910

119

report is not contained in any collection of his works extant, and
had been entirely lost for 180 years, until Hendriks discovered it
among the state archives of Holland in company with the letters
to Hudde. It is a document of extreme interest, and (notwith-
standing some inaccuracies in the reasoning) of very great merit,
more especially considering that it was the very first document
on the subject that was ever written.

It appears that it had long been the practice in Holland for
life annuities to be granted to nominees of any age, in the con-
stant proportion of double the rate of interest allowed on stock;
that is to say, if the towns were borrowing money at 6 %, they
would be willing to grant a life annuity at 12 %, and so on.
De Witt states that " annuities have been sold, even in the
present century, first at six years' purchase, then at seven and
eight; and that the majority of all life annuities now current
at the country's expense were obtained at nine years' purchase ";
but that the price had been increased in the course of a few
years from eleven years' purchase to twelve, and from twelve to

ANNUITY

fourteen. He also states that the rate of interest had been
successively reduced from 6| to 5 %, and then to 4 %. The
principal object of his report is to prove that, taking interest at
4%, a life annuity was worth at least sixteen years' purchase;
and, in fact, that an annuitant purchasing an annuity for the
life of a young and healthy nominee at sixteen years' purchase,
made an excellent bargain. It may be mentioned that he argues
that it is more to the advantage, both of the country and of the
private investor, that the public loans should be raised by way of
grant of life annuities rather than perpetual annuities. It appears
conclusively from De Witt's correspondence with Hudde, that
the rate of mortality assumed as the basis of his calculations
was deduced from careful examination of the mortality that had
actually prevailed among the nominees on whose lives annuities
had been granted in former years. De Witt appears to have
come to the conclusion that the probability of death is the
same in any half-year from the age of 3 to 53 inclusive; that
in the next ten years, from 53 to 63, the probability is greater
in the ratio of 3 to 2; that in the next ten years, from 63 to 73,
it is greater in the ratio of 2 to 1 ; and in the next seven years,
from 73 to 80, it is greater in the ratio of 3 to 1 ; and he places
the limit of human life at 80. If a mortality table of the usual
form is deduced from these suppositions, out of 212 persons
alive at the age of 3, 2 will die every year up to 53, 3 in each of
the ten years from 53 to 63, 4 in each of the next ten years from
63 t0 73) an d 6 in each of the next seven years from 73 to 80,
when all will be dead.

De Witt calculates the value of an annuity in the following
way. Assume that annuities on 10,000 lives each ten years of
age, which satisfy the Hm mortality table, have been purchased.
Of these nominees 79 will die before attaining the age of n,
and no annuity payment will be made in respect of them; none
will die between the ages of n and 12, so that annuities will be
paid for one year on 0921 lives; 40 attain the age of 12 and
die before 13, so that two payments will be made with respect
to these lives. Reasoning in this way we see that the annuities
on 35 of the nominees will be payable for three years; on 40
for four years, and so on. Proceeding thus to the end of the
table, 15 nominees attain the age of 95, 5 of whom die before
the age of 96, so that 8s payments will be paid in respect of
these 5 lives. Of the survivors all die before attaining the age
of 97, so that the annuities on these lives will be payable for 86
years. Having previously calculated a table of the values of
annuities certain for every number of years up to 86, the value
of all the annuities on the 10,000 nominees will be found by
taking 40 times the value of an annuity for 2 years, 35 times
the value of an annuity for 3 years, and so on — the last term
being the value of 10 annuities for 86 years — and adding them
together; and the value of an annuity on one of the nominees
will then be found by dividing by 10,000. Before leaving the
subject of De Witt, we may mention that we find in the corre-
spondence a distinct suggestion of the law of mortality that
bears the name of Demoivre. In De Witt's letter, dated the
27th of October 1671 (Ass. Mag. vol. iii. p. 107), he speaks of a
" provisional hypothesis " suggested by Hudde, that out of
80 young lives (who, from the context, may be taken as of the
age 6) about 1 dies annually. In strictness, therefore, the law
in question might be more correctly termed Hudde's than
Demoivre's.

De Witt's report being thus of the nature of an unpublished
state paper, although it contributed to its author's reputation,
did not contribute to advance the exact knowledge of the
subject; and the author to whom the credit must be given of
first showing how to calculate the value of an annuity on correct
principles is Edmund Halley. He gave the first approximately
correct mortality table (deduced from the records of the numbers
of deaths and baptisms in the city of Breslau), and showed how
it might be employed to calculate the value of an annuity on
the life of a nominee of any age (see Phil. Trans. 1693; Ass.
Mag. vol. xviii.).

Previously to Halley's time, and apparently for many years
Subsequently, all dealings with life annuities were based upon

mere conjectural estimates. The earliest known reference to
any estimate of the value of life annuities rose out of the require-
ments of the Falcidian law, which (40 B.C.) was adopted in the
Roman empire, and which declared that a testator should not
give more than three-fourths of his property in legacies, so that
at least one-fourth must go to his legal representatives. It is
easy to see how it would occasionally become necessary, while
this law was in force, to value life annuities charged upon a
testator's estate. Aemilius Macer (a.d. 230) states that the
method which had been in common use at that time was as
follows: — From the earliest age until 30 take 30 years' purchase,
and for each age after 30 deduct 1 year. It is obvious that no
consideration of compound interest can have entered into this
estimate; and it is easy to see that it is equivalent to assuming
that all persons who attain the age of 30 will certainly live to
the age of 60, and then certainly die. Compared with this esti-
mate, that which was propounded by the praetorian prefect
Ulpian was a great improvement. His table is as follows: —

Years'

Age.

Purchase.

Age.

Purchase.

Birth to 20 ,

45 to 46

20 „ 25

46 „ 47

25 - 30

47 ., 48 .

30 „ 35

48 „ 49

35 .. 40

49 - 50

40 „ 41

50 „ 55

41 .- 42

55 .. 6o

42 „ 43

60 and 1
upwards t

43 -. 44

44 .. 45

Here also we have no reason to suppose that the element of
interest was taken into consideration; and the assumption,
that between the ages of 40 and 50 each addition of a year to the
nominee's age diminishes the value of the annuity by one year's
purchase, is equivalent to assuming that there is no probability
of the nominee dying between the ages of 40 and 50. Con-
sidered, however, simply as a table of the average duration of
life, the values are fairly accurate. At all events, no more
correct estimate appears to have been arrived at until the close
of the 17 th century.

The mathematics of annuities has been very fully treated in
Demoivre's Treatise on Annuities (1725); Simpson's Doctrine of
Annuities and Reversions (1742); P. Gray, Tables and Formulae;
Baily's Doctrine of Life Annuities; there are also innumerable
compilations of Valuation Tables and Interest Tables, by means of
which the value of an annuity at any age and any rate of interest
may be found. See also the article Interest, and especially that on
Insurance.

Commutation tables, aptly so named in 1840 by Augustus
De Morgan (see his paper " On the Calculation of Single Life
Contingencies," Assurance Magazine, xii. 328), show the propor-
tion in which a benefit due at one age ought to be changed,
so as to retain the same value and be due at another age. The
earliest known specimen of a commutation table is contained
in William Dale's Introduction to the Study of the Doctrine of
Annuities, published in 1772. A full account of this work is
given by F. Hendriks in the second number of the Assurance
Magazine, pp. 15-17. William Morgan's Treatise on Assurances,
1779, also contains a commutation table. Morgan gives the
table as furnishing a convenient means of checking the correct-
ness of the values of annuities found by the ordinary process.
It may be assumed that he was aware that the table might be
used for the direct calculation of annuities; but he appears to
have been ignorant of its other uses.

The first author who fully developed the powers of the table
was John Nicholas Tetens, a native of Schleswig, who in 1785,
while professor of philosophy and mathematics at Kiel, published
in the German language an Introduction to the Calculation of
Life Annuities and Assurances. This work appears to have been
quite unknown in England until E. Hendriks gave, in the first
number of the Assurance Magazine, pp. 1-20 (Sept. 1850), an
account of it, with a translation of the passages describing the
construction and use of the commutation table, and a sketch

7 8

ANNULAR^-ANNUNZIO

of the author's life and writings, to which we refer the reader
who desires fuller information. It may be mentioned here that
Tetens also gave only a specimen table, apparently not imagining
that persons using his work would find it extremely useful to
have a series of commutation tables, calculated and printed
ready for use.

The use of the commutation table was independently developed
in England— apparently between the years 1788 and 181 1 —
by George Barrett, of Petworth, Sussex, who was the son of a
yeoman farmer, and was himself a village schoolmaster, and
afterwards farm steward or bailiff. It has been usual to consider
Barrett as the originator in England of the method of calculating
the values of annuities by means of a commutation table, and
this method is accordingly sometimes called Barrett's method.
(It is also called the commutation method and the columnar
method.) Barrett's method of calculating annuities was ex-
plained by him to Francis Baily in the year 181 1, and was first
made known to the wdrld in a paper written by the latter and
read before the Royal Society in 181 2.

By what has been universally considered an unfortunate
error of judgment, this paper was not recommended by the
council of the Royal Society to be printed, but it was given by
Baily as an appendix to the second issue (in 18 13) of his work
on life annuities and assurances., Barrett had calculated exten-
sive tables, and with Baily's aid attempted to get them published
by subscription, but without success; and the only printed
tables calculated according to his manner, besides the specimen
tables given by Baily, are the tables contained hi Babbage's
Comparative View of the various Institutions for the Assurance of
Lives, 1826.

In the year 1825 Griffith Davies published his Tables of Life
Contingencies , a work which contains, among others, two tables,
which are confessedly derived from Baily's explanation of
Barrett's tables.

Those who desire to pursue the subject further can refer to the
appendix to Baily's Life Annuities and Assurances, De Morgan's
paper " On the Calculation of Single Life Contingencies," Assurance
Magazine, xii. 348-349; Gray's Tables and Formulae, chap, viii.;
the preface to Davies's Treatise on Annuities; also' Hendriks's
papers in the Assurance Magazine, No. 1, p. I, and No. 2, p. 12;
and in particular De Morgan's " Account of a Correspondence
between Mr George Barrett and Mr Francis Baily," in the Assurance
Magazine, vol. iv. p. 185.

The principal commutation tables published in England are
contained in the following works: — David Jones, Value of Annuities
and Reversionary Payments, issued in parts by the Useful Knowledge
Society, completed in 1843; Jenkin Jones, New Rate of Mortality,
1843'; G. Davies, Treatise on Annuities, 1825 (issued 1855); David
Chisholm, Commutation Tables, 1858; Nelson's Contributions to
Vital Statistics, 1857; Jardine Henry, Government Life Annuity
Commutation Tables, 1866 and 1873; Institute of Actuaries Life
Tables, 1872; R. P. Hardy, Valuation Tables, 1873; and Dr William
Farr's contributions to the sixth (1844), twelfth (1849), and twentieth
(1857) Reports of the Registrar General in England (English Tables,
I. 2), and to the English Life Table, 1864.

The theory of annuities may be further studied in the discussions
in the English Journal of the Institute of Actuaries. The institute
was founded in the year 1,848, the first sessional meeting being held
in January 1849. Its establishment has contributed in various ways
to promote the study of the theory of life contingencies. Among
these may be specified the following: — Before it was formed, students
of the subject worked for the most part alone, and without any
concert ; and when any person had made an improvement in the
theory, it had little chance of becoming publicly known unless he
wrote a format treatise on the whole subject. But the formation of
the institute led to much greater interchange of opinion among
actuaries, and afforded them a ready means of making known to
their professional associates any improvements, real or supposed,
that they thought they had made. Again, the discussions which
follow the reading of papers before the institute have often served,
first, to bring out into bold relief differences of opinion that, were
previously unsuspected, and afterwards to soften down those differ-
ences, — to correct extreme opinions in every direction, and to bring
about a greater agreement of opinion on many important subjects.
In no way, probably, have the objects of the institute been so
effectually advanced as by the publication of its Journal. The first
number of this work, which was originally called the Assurance
Magazine, appeared in September 1850, and it has been continued
quarterly down to the present time. It was originated by the public
gpirit of two well-known actuaries (Mr Charles Jellicoe and Mr
Samuel Brown), and was adopted as the organ of the Institute of

Actuaries in the year 18.52, and called the Assurance Magazine and
Journal of the Institute of Actuaries, Mr Jellicoe continuing to be trie
editor, — a post he held until the year 1867, when he was succeeded
by Mr T. B. Spragiie (who contributed to the 9th edition of this
Encyclopaedia an elaborate article on " Annuities," on which the
above account is based). The name was again changed in 1866, the
words " Assurance Magazine " being dropped; but in the following
year it was considered desirable to resume these, for the purpose of
showing the continuity of the publication, and it is now called the
Journal of the Institute of Actuaries and Assurance Magazine. This
work contains not only the papers read before the institute (to which
have been appended of late years short abstracts of the discussions on
them), and many original papers which were unsuitable for reading,
together with correspondence, but also reprints of many papers
published elsewhere, which from various causes had become difficult
of access to the ordinary reader, among which may be specified
various papers which originally appeared in the Philosophical
Transactions , the Philosophical Magazine, the Mechanics' Magazine,
and 1 the Companion to the Almanac; also translations of various
papers from the French, German, and Danish. Among the useful
objects which the continuous publication of the Journal of the
institute has served, we may specify in particular two: — that any
supposed improvement in the theory was effectually submitted to
the criticisms of the whole actuarial profession, and its real value
speedily discovered; and that any real improvement, whether
great or small, being placed on record, successive writers have been
able, one after the other, to take it up and develop it, each com-
mencing where the previous one Had left off.

ANNULAR, ANNULATE, &c. (Lat. annulus, a ring), ringed,
"Annulate" is used in botany and zoology in connexion with
certain plants, worms, &c. (see Annelida), either marked with
rings or composed of ring-like segments. The word " annulated "
is also used in, heraldry and architecture. An annulated cross
is one with the points ending in an "annulet " (an heraldic ring,
supposed to be taken from a coat of mail), while the annulet in
architecture is a small fillet round a column, which encircles the
lower part of the Doric capital immediately above the neck or
trachelium. The word " annulus " (f or " ring ") is itself used tech-
nically ingeometry, astronomy, &c, and the adjective " annular "
corresponds, An annular space is that between an inner and outer
ring. The annular finger is the ring finger. An annular eclipse is
an eclipse of the sun in which the visible part of the latter com-
pletely encircles the dark body of the moon; for this to happen,
the centres, of the sun and moon, and the point on the earth
where the observer is situated, must be collinear. Certain
nebulae having the form of a ring are also called "annular."

ANNUNCIATION, the announcement made by the angel
Gabriel to the Virgin Mary of the incarnation of Christ (Luke i,
26-38). The Feast of the Annunciation in the Christian Church
is celebrated on the 25 th of March. The first authentic allusions
to it are in a canon, of the council of Toledo (656), and another
of the council of Constantinople " in Trullo " (692), forbidding
the celebration. of all festivals in Lent, excepting the Lord's day
and the Feast of the Annunciation. An earlier origin has been
claimed for it on the ground that it is mentioned in sermons of
Athanasius and of Gregory Thaumaturgus, but both of these
documents are now admitted to be spurious. A synod held at
Worcester, England (1240), forbade all servile work on this
feast day. See further Lady, Day.

ANNUNZIO, GABRIELE D' (1863 ;, Italian novelist and

poet, of Dalmatian extraction, was born at Pescara (Abruzzi) in
1863. The first years of his youth were spent in the freedom of
the open fields; at sixteen he was sent to school in Tuscany.
While still at school he published a small volume of verses called
Primo Vere (1879), in which, side by side with some almost
brutal imitations of Lorenzo Stecchetti, the then fashionable
poet of Postuma, were some translations from the Latin, dis-
tinguished by such agile grace that Giuseppe Chiarini on reading
them brought the unknown youth before the public in an enthusi?
astic article. The young poet then went to Rome, where Lc
was received as one of their own by the Cronaca Bizantina group
(see Carducci). Here he published Canto Nuovo (1882), Terra
Vergine (1882), V Intermezzo di Rime (1883), // Libro delle
Vergini (1884), and the greater part of the short stories that were
afterwards collected under the general title of San Pantaleone
(1886). In Canto Nuovo ws have admirable poems full of
pulsating youth and the picmise of power, some descriptive

ANOA— ANOINTING

of the sea and some of the Abruzzi landscape, commented on
and completed in prose by Terra Vergine, the latter a collection
of short stories dealing in radiant language with the peasant life
of the author's native province. With the Intermezzo di Rime we
have the beginning of d'Annunzio's second and characteristic
manner. His conception of style was new, and he chose to
express all the most subtle vibrations of voluptuous life. Both
style and contents began to startle his critics; some who had
greeted him as an enfant prodige — Chiarini amongst others —
rejected him as a perverter of public morals, whilst others
hailed him as one bringing a current of fresh air and the impulse
of a new vitality into the somewhat prim, lifeless work hitherto
produced.

Meanwhile the Review of Angelo Sommaruga perished in the
midst of scandal, and his group of young authors found itself
dispersed. Some entered the teaching career and were lost to
literature, others threw themselves into journalism. Gabriele
d' Annunzio took this latter course, and joined the staff of the
Tribuna. For this paper, under the pseudonym of " Duca
Minimo," he did some of his most brilliant work, and the articles
he wrote during that period of originality and exuberance would
well repay being collected. To this period of greater maturity and
deeper culture belongs 77 Libro d' Isotla (1886), a love poem, in
which for the first time he drew inspiration adapted to modern
sentiments and passions from the rich colours of the Renaissance.
II Libro d' Isotta is interesting also, because in it we find most
of the germs of his future work, just as in Intermezzo melico and
in certain ballads and sonnets we find descriptions and emotions
which later went to form the aesthetic contents of II Piacere, II
Trionfo della Morte, and Elegie Romane (1892).

D' Annunzio's first novel II Piacere (1889) — translated into
English as The Child of Pleasure — was followed in 1891 by
L' Innocente {The Intruder), and in 1892 by Giovanni Episcopo.
These three novels created a profound impression. 77 Innocente,
admirably translated into French by Georges Herelle, brought
its author the notice and applause of foreign critics. His next
work, II Trionfo della Morte {The Triumph of Death) (1894),
was followed at a short distance by Le Vergini della Roccio
(1896) and // Fuoco (1900), which in its descriptions of Venice
is perhaps the most ardent glorification of a city existing in any
language.

D' Annunzio's poetic work of this period, in most respects
his finest, is represented by II Poema Paradisiaco (1893), the
Odi Navali (1893), a superb attempt at civic poetry, and Laudi
(1900).

A later phase of d' Annunzio's work is his dramatic production,
represented by II Sogno di un mattino di primavera (1897), a
lyrical fantasia in one act; his Cilia Morta (1898), written for
Sarah Bernhardt, which is certainly among the most daring
and original of modern tragedies, and the only one which by its
unity, persistent purpose, and sense of fate seems to continue
in a measure the traditions of the Greek theatre. In 1S98
he wrote his Sogno di un Pomeriggio d' Aulunno and La
Gioconda; in the succeeding year La Gloria, an attempt at
contemporary political tragedy which met with no success,
probably through the audacity of the personal and political
allusions in some of its scenes; and then Francesca da Rimini
(1901), a perfect reconstruction of medieval atmosphere
and emotion, magnificent in style, and declared by one of the
most authoritative Italian critics — -Edoardo Boutet — to be the
first real although not perfect tragedy which has ever been given
to the Italian theatre.

The work of d' Annunzio, although by many of the younger
generation injudiciously and extravagantly admired, is almost
the most important literary work given to Italy since the days
when the great classics welded her varying dialects into a fixed
language. The psychological inspiration of his novels has come
to him from many sources — French, Russian, Scandinavian,
German — and in much of his earlier work there is little
fundamental originality. His creative power is intense and
searching, but narrow and personal; his heroes and heroines are
little more than one same type monotonously facing a different

problem at a different phase of life. But the faultlessness of his
style and the wealth of his language have been approached by
none of his contemporaries, whom his genius has somewhat
paralysed. In his later work, when he begins drawing his inspira-
tion from the traditions of bygone Italy in her glorious centuries,
a current of real life seems to run through the veins of his
personages. And the lasting merit of d' Annunzio, his real value
to the literature of his country, consists precisely in that he opened
up the closed mine of its former life as a source of inspiration
for the present and of hope for the future, and created a language,
neither pompous nor vulgar, drawn from every source and district
suited to the requirements of modern thought, yet absolutely
classical, borrowed from none, and, independently of the thought
it may be used to express, a thing of intrinsic beauty. As
his sight became clearer and his purpose strengthened, as ex-
aggerations, affectations, and moods dropped away from his con-
ceptions, his work became more and more typical Latin work,
upheld by the ideal of an Italian Renaissance.

ANOA, the native name of the small wild buffalo of Celebes,
Bos {Bubalus) depressicornis, which stands but little over a
yard at the shoulder, and is the most diminutive of all wild
cattle. It is nearly allied to the larger Asiatic buffaloes, showing
the same reversal of the direction of the hair on the back. The
horns are peculiar for their upright direction and comparative
straightness, although they have the same triangular section as
in other buffaloes. White spots are sometimes present below
the eyes, arid there may be white markings on the legs and
back; and the absence or presence of these white markings
may be indicative of distinct races. The horns of the cows are
very small. The nearest allies of the anoa appear to be certain
extinct buffaloes, of which the remains are found in the Siwalik
Hills of northern India. In habits the animal appears to
resemble the Indian buffalo.

ANODYNE (from Gr. av-, privative, and oSwt;, pain), a cause
which relieves pain. The term is commonly applied to medicines
which lessen the sensibility of the brain or nervous system, such
as morphia, &c.

ANOINTING, or greasing with oil, fat, or melted butter, a
process employed ritually in all religions and among all races,
civilized or savage, partly as a mode of ridding persons and
things of dangerous influences and diseases, especially of the
demons (Persian drug, Greek /ojpes, Armenian dev) which are or
cause those diseases; and partly as a means of introducing into
things and persons a sacramental or divine influence, a holy
emanation, spirit or power. The riddance of an evil influence is
often synonymous with the introduction of the good principle,
and therefore it is best to consider first the use of anointing in
consecrations.

The Australian natives believed that the virtues of one killed
could be transferred to survivors if the latter rubbed themselves
with his caul-fat. So the Arabs of East Africa anoint themselves
with lion's fat in order to gain courage and inspire the animals
with awe of themselves. Such rites are often associated with the
actual eating of the victim whose virtues are coveted. Human
fat is a powerful charm all over the world; for, as R. Smith
points out, after the blood the fat was- peculiarly the vehicle
and seat of life. This is why fat of a victim was smeared on a
sacred stone, not only in acts of homage paid to it, but in the
actual consecration thereof. In such cases the influence of the
god, communicated to the victim, passed with the unguent into
the stone. But the divinity could by anointing be transferred
into men no less than into stones; and from immemorial an-
tiquity, among the Jews as among other races, kings were
anointed or greased, doubtless with the fat of the victims which,
like the blood, was too holy to be eaten by the common votaries.

Butter made from the milk of the cow, the most sacred of
animals, is used for anointing in the Hindu religion. A newly-
built house is smeared with it, so are demoniacs, care being taken
to smear the latter downwards from head to foot.

In the Christian religion, especially where animal sacrifices,
together with the cult of totem or holy animals, have been given
up, it is usual to hallow the oil used in ritual anointings with

ANOMALY^ANQUETIL DUPERRON

special prayers and exorcisms; oil from the lamps lit before the
altar has a peculiar virtue of its own, perhaps because it can be
burned to give light, and disappears to heaven in doing so. In
any case oil has ever been regarded as the aptest symbol and
vehicle of the holy and illuminating spirit. For this reason the
catechumens are anointed with holy oil both before and after
baptism; the one act (of eastern origin) assists the expulsion
of the evil spirits, the other (of western origin), taken in con-
junction with imposition of hands, conveys the spirit and
retains it in the person of the baptized. In the postbaptismal
anointing the oil was applied to the organs of sense, to the head,
heart, and midriff. Such ritual use of oil as a a<j>payis or seal
may have been suggested in old religions by the practice of
keeping wine fresh in jars and amphorae by pouring on a top
layer of oil; for the spoiling of wine was attributed to the action
of demons of corruption, against whom many ancient formulae
of aversion or exorcism still exist.

The holy oil, chrism, or nvpov, as the Easterns call it, was
prepared and consecrated on Maundy Thursday, and in the
Gelasian sacramentary the formula used runs thus: " Send
forth, O Lord, we beseech thee, thy Holy Spirit the Paraclete
from heaven into this fatness of oil, which thou hast deigned to
bring forth out of the green wood for the refreshing of mind and
body; and through thy holy benediction may it be for all who
anoint with it, taste it, touch it, a safeguard of mind and body,
of soul and spirit, for the expulsion of all pains, of every infirmity,
of every sickness of mind and body. For with the same thou
hast anointed priests, kings, and prophets and martyrs with this
thy chrism, perfected by thee, O Lord, blessed, abiding within
our bowels in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ."

In various churches the dead are anointed with holy oil, to
guard them against the vampires or ghouls which ever threaten
to take possession of dead bodies and live in them. In the
Armenian church, as formerly in many Greek churches, a cross
is not holy until the Spirit has been formally led into it by means
of prayer and anointing with holy oil. A new church is anointed
at its four corners, and also the altar round which it is built;
similarly tombs, church gongs, and all other instruments and
utensils dedicated to cultual uses. In churches of the Greek
rite a little of the old year's chrism is left in the jar to communicate
its sanctity to that of the new. (F. C. C.)

ANOMALY (from Gr. dvco/iaXia, unevenness, derived from
&.P-, privative, and o/xaKos, even), a deviation from the common
rule. In astronomy the word denotes the angular distance of a
body from the pericentre of the orbit in which it is moving.
Let AB be the major axis of the orbit, B the pericentre, F the
focus or centre of motion, P the position of the body. The
anomaly is then the angle BFP which the radius vector makes
with the major axis. This is the actual or true anomaly. Mean

anomaly is the anomaly which the
body would have if it moved from
the pericentre around F with a
uniform angular motion such that
its revolution would be completed
in its actual time (see Orbit) -
Eccentric anomaly is defined thus: —
Draw the circumscribing circle of
the elliptic orbit around the centre C
of the orbit. Drop the perpendicular
RPQ through P, the position of
the planet, upon the major axis.
Join CR; the angle CRQ is then the eccentric anomaly.

In the ancient astronomy the anomaly was taken as the
angular distance of the planet from the point of the farthest
recession from the earth.

Kepler's Problem, namely, that of finding the co-ordinates of a
planet at a given time, which is equivalent — given the mean
anomaly — to that of determining the true anomaly, was solved
approximately by Kepler, and more completely by Wallis,
Newton and others.

The anomalistic revolution of a planet or other heavenly body
is the revolution between two consecutive passages through the

pericentre. Starting from the pericentre, it is completed on the
return to the pericentre. If the pericentre is fixed, this is an
actual revolution; but if it moves the anomalistic revolution
is greater or less than a complete circumference.

An Anomalistic year is the time (365 days, 6 hours, 13 minutes,
48 seconds) in which the earth (and similarly for any other
planet) passes from perihelion to perihelion, or from any given
value of the anomaly to the same again. Owing to the precession
of the equinoxes it is longer than a tropical or sidereal year by
25 minutes and 2-3 seconds. An Anomalistic month is the time
in which the moon passes from perigee to perigee, &c.

For the mathematics of Kepler's problem see E. W. Brown,
Lunar Theory (Cambridge 1896), or the work of Watson or of
Bauschinger on Theoretical Astronomy.

ANORTHITE, an important mineral of the felspar group, being
one of the end members of the plagioclase (q.v.) series. It is a
calcium and aluminium silicate, CaAlaSisOg, and crystallizes
in the anorthic system. Like all the felspars, it possesses two
cleavages, one perfect and the other less so, here inclined to one
another at an angle of 85° 50'. The colour is white, greyish or
reddish, and the crystals are trans-
parent to translucent. The hard-
ness is 6— 6§, and the specific gravity
2-75.

Anorthite is an essential con-
stituent of many basic igneous
rocks, such as gabbro and basalt,
also of some meteoric stones. The
best developed crystals are those
which accompany mica, augite,
sanidine, &c, in the ejected blocks

of metamorphosed limestone from .

Monte Somma, the ancient portion .

of Mount Vesuvius; these are Anorthite.

perfectly colourless and transparent, and are bounded by
numerous brilliant faces. Distinctly developed crystals are
also met with in the basalts of Japan, but are usually rare at
other localities.

The name anorthite was given to the Vesuvian mineral by
G. Rose in 1823, on account of its anorthic crystallization. The
species had, however, been earlier described by the comte de
Bournon under the name indianite, this name being applied to a
greyish or reddish granular mineral forming the matrix of corun-
dum from the Carnatic in India. Several unimportant varieties
have been distinguished. (L. J, S.)

ANQUETIL, LOUIS PIERRE (1723-1808), French historian,
was born in Paris, on the 21st of February 1723. He entered the
congregation of Sainte-Genevieve, where he took holy orders and
became professor of theology and literature. Later, he became
director of the seminary at Reims, where he wrote his Histoire
civile et politique de Reims (3 vols., 1756-1757), perhaps his best
work. He was then director of the college of Serdis, where he
composed his Esprit de la Ligue ou histoire politique des troubles
de la Fronde pendant le XVI" et le XVII s siecles (1767). During
the Reign of Terror he was imprisoned at St Lazare; there he
began his Pricis de Vhistoire universelle, afterwards published in
nine volumes. On the establishment of the national institute he
was elected a meriiber of the second group (moral and political
sciences), and was soon afterwards employed in the office of the
ministry of foreign affairs, profiting by his experience to write his
Motifs des guerreset des traites de paix sous Louis XI V ., Louis X V,
et Louis XVI. He is said to have been asked by Napoleon to
write his Histoire de France (14 vols., 1805), a mediocre compila-
tion at second or third hand, with the assistance of de Mezeray
andof Paul Francois Velly (1700-1750). This work, nevertheless,
passed through numerous editions, and by it his name is remem-
bered. He died on the 6th of September 1808.

ANQUETIL DUPERRON, ABRAHAM HYACINTHS (-1731-
1805), French orientalist, brother of Louis Pierre Anquetil, the
historian, was born in Paris on the 7th of December 1731. He
was educated for the priesthood in Paris and Utrecht* but his taste
for Hebrew,. Arabic, Persian, and other languages of the East

ANSA-^ANSELM

developed into a passion, and he discontinued his theological
course to devote himself entirely to them. His diligent attend-
ance at the Royal Library attracted the attention of the keeper
of the manuscripts, the Abbe Sallier, whose influence procured
for him a small salary as student of the oriental languages. He
had lighted on some fragments of the Vendidad Sade, and formed
the project of a voyage to India to discover the works of Zoroaster.
With this end in view he enlisted as a private soldier, on the 2nd
of November 1754, in the Indian expedition which was about to
start from the port of L 'Orient. His friends procured his dis-
charge, and he was granted a free passage, a seat at the captain's
table, and a salary, the amount of which was to be fixed by the
governor of the French settlement in India. After a passage of
six months, Anquetil landed, on the 10th of August 1755^ at
Pondicherry. Here he remained a short time to master modern
Persian, and then hastened to Chandernagore to acquire Sanskrit.
Just then war was declared between France and England;
Chandernagore was taken, and Anquetil returned to Pondicherry
by land. He found one of his brothers at Pondicherry, and
embarked with him for Surat; but, with a view of exploring the
country, he landed at Mah6 and proceeded on foot. At Surat he
succeeded, by perseverance and address in his intercourse with
the native priests, in acquiring a sufficient knowledge of the Zend
and Pahlavi languages to translate the liturgy called the Vendidad
Sade and some other works. Thence he proposed going to
Benares, to study the language, antiquities, and sacred laws of
the Hindus; but the capture of Pondicherry obliged him to quit
India. Returning to Europe in an English vessel, he spent some
time in London and Oxford, and then set out for France. He
arrived in Paris on the 14th of March 1762 in possession of one
hundred and eighty oriental manuscripts, besides other curiosities.
The Abbe Barthelemy procured for him a pension, with the
appointment of interpreter of oriental languages at the Royal
Library. In 1763 he was elected an associate of the Academy of
Inscriptions, and began to arrange for the publication of the
materials he had collected during his eastern travels. In 1771 he
published his Zend-Avesta (3 vols.), containing collections from
the sacred writings of the fire-worshippers, a life of Zoroaster, and
fragments of works ascribed to him. In 1778 -he published at
Amsterdam his Legislation orientate, in which he endeavoured to
prove that the nature of oriental despotism had been greatly
misrepresented. His Recherches hisloriques et geographiques sur
I'Inde appeared in 1786, and formed part of Thieffenthaler's
Geography of India. The Revolution seems to have greatly
affected him. During that period he abandoned society, and
lived in voluntary poverty on a few pence a day. In 1798 he
published L'Inde en rapport avec I' Europe (Hamburg, 2 vols.),
which contained much invective against the English, and numerous
misrepresentations. In 1802-1804 he published a Latin transla-
tion (2 vols.) from the Persian of the Oupnek'hat or Upanishada.
It is a curious mixture of Latin, Greek, Persian, Arabic, and
Sanskrit. He died in Paris on the 17th of January 1805.

See Biographie universelle; Sir William Jones, Works (vol. x.,
1807); and the Miscellanies of the Philobiblon Society (vol. iii.,
1856-1857). For a list of his scattered writings see Querard, La
France litteraire.

ANSA (from Lat. ansa, a handle), in astronomy, one of the
apparent ends of the rings of Saturn as seen in perspective from
the earth: so-called because, in the earlier telescopes, they looked
like handles projecting from the planet. In anatomy the word
is applied to nervous structures which resemble loops. In
archaeology it is used for the engraved and ornamented handle
of a vase, which has often survived when the vase itself, being less
durable, has disappeared.

ANSBACH, or Anspach, originally Onohbach, a town of
Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the Rezat, 27 m. by rail
S.W. of Nuremberg, and 00 m. N. of Munich. Pop. (1900)
17,555- It contains a palace, once the residence of the margraves
of Anspach, with fine gardens; several churches, the finest of
which are those dedicated to St John, containing the vault of
the former margraves, and St Gumbert; a gymnasium; a
picture gallery; a municipal museum and a special technical

school. Ansbach possesses monuments to the poets August,
Count von Platen-Hailermund, and Johann Peter Uz, who were
born here, and to Kaspar Hauser, who died here. The chief
manufactures are machinery, toys, woollen, cotton, and half-silk
stuffs, embroideries, earthenware, tobacco, cutlery and playing
cards. There is considerable trade in grain, wool and flax. In
1 79 1 the last margrave of Anspach sold his principality to
Frederick William II., king of Prussia; it was transferred by
Napoleon to Bavaria in 1806, an act which was confirmed by the
congress of Vienna in 1815.

ANSDELL, RICHARD (1815-1885), English painter, was
born in Liverpool, and first exhibited at the Royal Academy
in 1840. He was a painter of genre, chiefly animal and sporting
pictures, and he became very popular, being elected A.R.A. in
1861 and R.A. in 1870. His " Stag at Bay " (1846), " The
Combat " (1847), and " Battle of the Standard " (1848), repre-
sent his best work, in which he showed himself a notable follower
of Landseen

ANSELM (c. 1033-1109), archbishop of Canterbury, was born
at Aosta in Piedmont. His family was accounted noble, and
was possessed of considerable property. Gundulph, his father,
was by birth a Lombard, and seems to have been a man of harsh
and violent temper; his mother, Ermenberga, was a prudent and
virtuous woman, from whose careful religious training the young
Anselm derived much benefit. At the age of fifteen he desired
to enter a convent, but he could not obtain his father's consent.
Disappointment brought on an illness, on his recovery from
which he seems for a time to have given up his studies, and to
have plunged into the gay life of the world. During this time his
mother died, and his father's harshness became unbearable.
He left home, and with only one attendant crossed the Alps,
and wandered through Burgundy and France. Attracted by
the fame of his countryman, Lanfranc, then prior of Bee, he
entered Normandy, and, after spending some time at Avranches,
settled at the monastery of Bee. There, at the age of twenty-
seven, he became a monk; three years later, when Lanfranc
was promoted to the abbacy of Caen, he was elected prior.
This office he held for fifteen years, and then, in 1078, on the
death of Herlwin, the warrior monk who had founded the
monastery, he was made abbot. Under his rule Bee became the
first seat of learning in Europe, a result due not more to his
intellectual powers than to the great moral influence of his
noble character and kindly discipline. It was during these quiet
years at Bee that Anselm wrote his first philosophical and re-
ligious works, the dialogues on Truth and Freewill, and the two
celebrated treatises, the Monologion and Proslogion.

Meanwhile the convent had been growing in wealth, as well
as in reputation, and had acquired considerable property in
England, which it became the duty of Anselm occasionally to
visit. By his mildness of temper and unswerving rectitude,
he so endeared himself to the English that he was looked upon
and desired as the natural successor to Lanfranc, then archbishop
of Canterbury. But on the death of that great man, the ruling
sovereign', William Rufus, seized the possessions and revenues
of the see, and made no new appointment. About four years
after, in 1092, on the invitation of Hugh, earl of Chester, Anselm
with some reluctance, for he feared to be made archbishop,
crossed to England. He was detained by business for nearly
four months, and when about to return, was refused permission
by the king. In the following year William fell ill, and thought
his death was at hand. Eager to make atonement for his sin
with regard to the archbishopric, he nominated Anselm to the
vacant see, and after a great struggle compelled him to accept
the pastoral staff of office. After obtaining dispensation from
his duties in Normandy, Anselm was consecrated in 1093. He
demanded of the king, as the conditions of his retaining office,
that he should give up all the possessions of the see, accept his
spiritual counsel, and acknowledge Urban as pope in opposition
to the anti-pope, Clement. He only obtained a partial consent
to the first of these, and the last involved him in a serious difficulty
with the king. It was a rule of the church that the consecration
of metropolitans could not be completed without their receiving

ANSELM

the pallium from the hands of the pope. Anselm, accordingly,
insisted that he must proceed to Rome to receive the pall. But
William would not permit this; he had not acknowledged Urban,
and he maintained his right to prevent any pope being acknow-
ledged by an English subject without his permission. A great
council of churchmen and nobles, held to settle the matter,
advised Anselm to submit to the king, but failed to overcome
his mild and patient firmness. The matter was postponed,
and William meanwhile privately sent messengers to Rome,
who acknowledged Urban and prevailed on him to send a legate
to the king bearing the archiepiscopal pall. A partial recon-
ciliation was then effected, and the matter of the pall was com-
promised. It was not given by the king, but was laid on the
altar at Canterbury, whence Anselm took it.

Little more than a year after, fresh trouble arose with the king,
and Anselm resolved to proceed to Rome and seek the counsel
of his spiritual father. With great difficulty he obtained a
reluctant permission to leave, and in October 1097 he set out
for Rome. William immediately seized on the revenues of the
see, and retained them to his death. Anselm was received with
high honour by Urban, and at a great council held at Bari, he
was put forward to defend the doctrine of the procession of the
Holy Ghost against the representatives of the Greek Church.
But Urban was too politic to embroil himself with the king of
England, and Anselm found that he could obtain no substantial
result. He withdrew from Rome, and spent some time at the
little village of Schiavi, where he finished his treatise on the
atonement, Cur Deus homo, and then retired to Lyons.

In 1 100 William was killed, and Plenry, his successor, at once
recalled Anselm. But Henry demanded that he should again
receive from him in person investiture in his office of archbishop,
thus making the dignity entirely dependent on the royal
authority. Now, the papal rule in the matter was plain; all
homage and lay investiture were strictly prohibited. Anselm
represented this to the king; but Henry would not relinquish
a privilege possessed by his predecessors, and proposed that the
matter should be laid before the Holy See. The answer of the
pope reaffirmed the law as to investiture. A second ejnbassy
was sent, with a similar result. Henry, however, remained
firm, and at last, in 1103, Anselm and an envoy from the king
set out for Rome. The pope, Paschal, reaffirmed strongly the
rule of investiture, and passed sentence of excommunication
against all who had infringed the law, except Henry. Practically
this left matters as they were, and Anselm, who had received
a message forbidding him to return to England unless on the
king's terms, withdrew to Lyons, where he waited to see if
Paschal would not take stronger measures. At last, in 1105,
he resolved himself to excommunicate Henry. His intention
was made known to the king through his sister, and it seriously
alarmed him, for it was a critical period in his affairs. A meeting
was arranged, and a reconciliation between them effected. In
1 106 Anselm crossed to England, with power from the pope
to remove the sentence of excommunication from the illegally
invested churchmen. In 1107 the long dispute as to investiture
was finally ended by the king resigning his formal rights. The
remaining two years of Anselm's life were spent in the duties
of his archbishopric. He died on the 2tst of April 1100. He
was canonized in 1494 by Alexander VI.

Anselm may, with some justice, be considered the first scho-
lastic philosopher and theologian. His only great predecessor,
Scotus Erigena, had more of the speculative and mystical
element than is consistent with a schoolman; but in Anselm
are found that recognition of the relation of reason to revealed
truth, and that attempt to elaborate a rational system of faith,
which form the special characteristics of scholastic thought.
His constant endeavour is to render the contents of the Christian
consciousness clear to reason, and to develop the intelligible
truths interwoven with the Christian belief. The necessary
preliminary for this is the possession of the Christian conscious-
ness. " He who does not believe will not experience; and he
who has not experienced will not understand." That faith must
precede knowledge is reiterated by him. " Na/uc cnitn quaero

intelligere ut credam, sed credo id intelligam. Nam et hoc credo,
quia, nisi credidero, non intelligam." (" Nor do I seek to under-
stand that I may believe, but I believe that I may understand.
For this too I believe, that unless I first believe, I shall not under-
stand.") But after the f».ith is held fast, the attempt must be
made to demonstrate by reason the truth of what we believe.
It is wrong not to do so. "Negligentiae mihi esse videtyr, si,
postquam confirmati sumus in fide, non studemus quod credimus,
intelligere." ("I hold it to be a failure in duty if after we have
become steadfast in the faith we do not strive to understand
what we believe.") To such an extent does he carry this demand
for rational explanation that, at times, it seems as if he claimed
for unassisted intelligence the power of penetrating even to the
mysteries of the Christian faith. On the whole, however, the
qualified statement is his real view; merely rational proofs are
always, he affirms, to be tested by Scripture. (Cur Deus homo,
i. 2 and 38; De Fide Trin. 2.)

The groundwork of his theory of knowledge is contained in
the tract De Veritate, in which, from the consideration of truth
as in knowledge, in willing, and in things, he rises to the affirma-
tion of an absolute truth, in which all other truth participates.
This absolute truth is God himself, who is therefore the ultimate
ground or principle both of things and of thought. The notion
of God comes thus into the foreground of the system; before
all things it is necessary that it should be made clear to reason,
that it should be demonstrated to have real existence. This
demonstration is the substance of the Monologion and Proshgion.
In the first of these the proof rests on the ordinary grounds of
realism, and coincides to some extent with the earlier theory of
Augustine, though it is carried out with singular boldness and
fulness. Things, he says, are called good in a variety of ways
and degrees; this would be impossible if there were not some
absolute standard, some good in itself, in which all relative
goods participate. Similarly with such predicates as great,
just; they involve a certain greatness and justice. The very
existence of things is impossible without some one Being, by
whom they are. This absolute Being, this goodness, justice,
greatness, is God. Anselm was not thoroughly satisfied with
this reasoning; it started from a posteriori grounds, and con-
tained several converging lines of proof. He desired to have
some one short demonstration. Such a demonstration he
presented in the Proslogion; it is his celebrated ontological
proof. God is that being than whom none greater can '.Be
conceived. Now, if that than which nothing greater cf n t)e
conceived existed only in the intellect, it would not be the
absolutely greatest, for we could add to it existence in reality.
It follows, then, that the being than whom nothing greater can
be conceived, i.e. God, necessarily has real existence. This
reasoning, in which Anselm partially anticipated the Cartesian
philosophers, has rarely seemed satisfactory. It was opposed
at the time by the monk Gaunilo, in his Liber pro Insipiente, on
the ground that we cannot pass from idea to reality. The same
criticism is made by several of the later schoolmen, among others
by Aquinas, and is in substance what Kant advances against all
ontological proof. Anselm replied to the objections of Gaunilo in
his Liber Apologelicus. The existence of God being thus held
proved, he proceeds to state the rational grounds of the Christian
doctrines of creation and of the Trinity. With reference to this
last, he says we cannot know God from himself, but only after
the analogy of his creatures; and the special analogy used is
the self-consciousness of man, its peculiar double nature, with
the necessary elements, memory and intelligence, representing
the relation of the Father to the Son. The mutual love of these
two, proceeding from the relation they hold to one another,
symbolizes the Holy Spirit. The further theological doctrines of
man, original sin, free will, are developed, partly in the Mono-
logion, partly in other mixed treatises. Finally, in his greatest
work, Cur Deus homo, he undertakes to make plain, even to
infidels, the rational necessity of the Christian mystery of the
atonement. The theory rests on three positions: that satisfac-
tion is necessary on account of God's honour and justice; that
such satisfaction can be given only by the peculiar oersonalitv

ANSELM— ANSON

of the God-man; that such satisfaction is really given by the
voluntary death of this infinitely valuable person. The demon-
stration is, in brief, this. All the actions of men are due to the
furtherance of God's glory; if, then, there be sin, i.e. if God's
honour be wounded, man of himself can give no satisfaction.
But the justice of God demands satisfaction; and as an insult
to infinite honour is in itself infinite, the satisfaction must be
infinite, i.e. it must outweigh all that is not God. Such a penalty
can only be paid by God himself, and, as a penalty for man,
must be paid under the form of man. Satisfaction is only possible
through the God-man. Now this God-man, as sinless, is exempt
from the punishment of sin ; His passion is therefore voluntary,
not given as due. The merit of it is therefore infinite; God's
justice is thus appeased, and His mercy may extend to man.
This theory has exercised immense influence on the form of
church doctrine. It is certainly an advance on the older patristic
theory, in so far as it substitutes for a contest between God and
Satan, a contest between the goodness and justice of God; but
it puts the whole relation on a merely legal footing, gives it no
ethical bearing, and neglects altogether the consciousness of the
individual to be redeemed. In this respect it contrasts un-
favourably with the later theory of Abelard.

Anselm's speculations did not receive, in the middle ages,
the respect and attention justly their due. This was probably
due to their unsystematic character, for they are generally tracts
or dialogues on detached questions, not elaborate treatises like
the great works of Albert, Aquinas, and Erigena. They have,
however, a freshness and philosophical vigour, which more than
makes up for their want of system, and which raises them far
above the level of most scholastic writings.

Bibliography. — The main sources for the history of St Anselm
and his times are Eadmer's Vita Anselmi and his Historia Novorum,
edited by M. Rule in Rolls Series (London, 1884); the best modern
work is by Pere Ragey, Histoire de Saint Anselme (Paris, 1890), and
Saint Anselme professeur (Paris, 1890). Other appreciations are
by A. Mohler, Anselm Erzbischof von Canterbury (Regensburg, 1839;
Eng. trans, by H. Rymer, London, 1842); F. R. Hasse, Anselm von
Canterbury (2 vols., Leipzig, 1 842-1853) ; C. de Remusat, S. Anselme
de Cantorbery (Paris, 1853, new ed. 1868) ; R. W. Church, St Anselm,
first published in Sunday Library (London, 1870; often reprinted);
Martin Rule, Life and Times of St Anselm (London, 1883).

Works : The best edition of St Anselm's complete works is that of
Dom Gerberon (Paris, 1675); reprinted with many notes in 1712;
incorporated by J. Migne in his Patrologia Latina, tomi clyiii.-clix.
(Paris. 1853-1854). Migne's reprint contains many errors. The Cur
Deus homo may be best studied in the editions published by D. Nutt
(London, 1885) and by Griffith (1898). The Mariale, or poems in
honour of the Blessed Virgin, has been carefully edited by P. Ragey
(Tournai, 1885) ; the Monologion and Proslogion, by C. E. Ubaghs
(Louvain, 1854; Eng. trans, by S. N. Deane, Chicago, 1903); the
Meditationes, many of which are wrongly attributed to Anselm, have
been frequently reprinted, and were included in Methuen's Library
of Devotion (London, 1903).

The best criticism of Anselm's philosophical works is by J. M.
Rigg (London, 1896), and Domet de Vorges (Grands Philosophes
series, Paris, 1901). For a complete bibliography, see A. Vacant's
Dictionnaire de theologie.

ANSELM, of Laon (d. 11 17), French theologian, was born of
very humble parents at Laon before the middle of the nth
century. He is said to have studied under St Anselm at Bee.
About 1076 he taught with great success at Paris, where, as the
associate of William of Champeaux, he upheld the realistic side
of the scholastic controversy. Later he removed to his native
place, where his school for theology and exegetics rapidly became
the most famous in Europe. He died in n 17. His greatest
work, an interlinear gloss on the Scriptures, was one of the
great authorities of the middle ages. It has been frequently
reprinted. Other commentaries apparently by him have been
ascribed to various writers, principally to the great Anselm. A
list of them, with notice of Anselm's life, is contained in the
Histoire litteraire dc la France, x. 170-189.

The works are collected in Migne's Patrologia Latina, tome 1 62;
some unpublished Sententiae were edited by G. Lefevre (Milan, 1894),
on which see Haureau in the Journal des savants for 1895.

ANSELME (Father Anselme of the Virgin Mary) (1625-1694),
French genealogist, was born in Paris in 1625. As a layman his
name was Pierre Guibours. He entered the order of the bare-
footed Augustinians on the 31st of March 1644, and it was in

their monastery (called the Couvent des Petits Peres, near the
church of Notre-Dame des Victoires) that he died, on the 17th
of January 1694. He devoted his entire life to genealogical
studies. In 1663 he. published Le Palais de Vhonneur, which
besides giving the genealogy of the houses of Lorraine and Savoy,
is a complete treatise on heraldry, and in 1664 Le Palais de la
gloire, dealing with the genealogy of various illustrious French
and European families. These books made friends for him, the
most intimate among whom, Honore Caille, seigneur du Fourny
(1630-1713), persuaded him to publish his Histoire genealogique
de la maison royale de France, el des grands officiers de
la couromte (1674, 2 vols. 4); after Father Anselme's death,
Honore Caille collected his papers,and brought out a new edition
of this highly important work in 171 2. The task was taken up
and continued by two other friars of the Couvent des Petits
Peres, Father Ange de Sainte-Rosalie (Frangois Raffard, 1655-
1726), and Father Simplicien (Paul Lucas, 1683-1759), who
published the first and second volumes of the third edition in
1726. This edition consists of nine volumes folio; it is a genea-
logical and chronological history of the royal house of France,
of the peers, of the great officers of the crown and of the king's
household, and of the ancient barons of the kingdom. The notes
were generally compiled from original documents, references
to which are usually given, so that they remain useful to the
present day. The work of Father Anselme, his collaborators
and successors, is even more important for the history of
France than is Dugdale's Baronage of England for the history
of England. (C. B.*)

ANSON, GEORGE ANSON, Baron (1697-1762), British admiral,
was born on the 23rd- of April 1697. He was the son of
William Anson of Shugborough in Staffordshire, and his wife
Isabella Carrier, who was the sister-in-law of Lord Chancellor
Macclesfield, a relationship which proved very useful to the
future admiral. George Anson entered the navy in February
171 2, and by rapid steps became lieutenant in 17 16, commander
in 1722, and post-captain in 1724. In this rank he served twice
on the North American station as captain of the " Scarborough "
and the " Squirrel " from 1724 to 1730 and from 1733 to 1735.
In 1737 he was appointed to the " Centurion," 60, on the eve of
war with Spain, and when hostilities had begun he was chosen
to command as commodore the squadron which was sent to attack
her possessions in South America in 1740. The original scheme
was ambitious, and was not carried out. Anson's squadron,
which sailed later than had been intended, and was very ill-fitted,
consisted of six ships, which were reduced by successive disasters
to his flagship the " Centurion." The lateness of the season
forced him to round Cape Horn in very stormy weather, and the
navigating instruments of the time did not allow of exact observa-
tion. Two of his vessels failed to round the Horn, another, the
" Wager," was wrecked in the Golfo de Panas on the coast of
Chile. By the time Anson reached the island of Juan Fernandez
in June 1741, his six ships had been reduced to three, while the
strength of his crews had fallen from 961 to 335. In the absence
of any effective Spanish force on the coast he was able to harass
the enemy, and to capture the town of Paita on the I3th-i5th
of November 1741. The steady diminution of his crew by sick-
ness, and the worn-out state of his remaining consorts, compelled
him at last to collect all the survivors in the " Centurion." He
rested at the island of Tinian, and then made his way to Macao
in November 1742. After considerable difficulties with the
Chinese, he sailed again with his one remaining vessel to cruise
for one of the richly laden galleons which conducted the trade
between Mexico and the Philippines. The indomitable per-
severance he had shown during one of the most arduous voyages
in the history of sea adventure was rewarded by the capture of
an immensely rich prize, the " Nuestra Sefiora de Covadonga,"
which was met off Cape Espiritu Santo on the 20th of June 1743.
Anson took his prize back to Macao, sold her cargo to the Chinese,
keeping the specie, and sailed for England, which he reached by
the Cape of Good Hope on the 15th of June 1744. The prize-
money earned by the capture of the galleon had made him a rich
man for life, and under the influence of irritatian caused by the

8 4

ANSON— ANSTEY

refusal of the admiralty to confirm a captain's commission he
had given to one of his officers, Anson refused the rank of rear-
admiral, and was prepared to leave the service. His fame would
stand nearly as high as it does if he had done so, but he would be
a far less important figure in the history of the navy. By the
world at large he is known as the commander of the voyage of
circumnavigation, in which success was won by indomitable
perseverance, unshaken firmness, and infinite resource; But he
was also the severe and capable administrator who during years
of hard work at the admiralty did more than any other to raise
the navy from the state of corruption and indiscipline into
which it had fallen during the first half of the eighteenth century.
Great anger had been caused in the country by the condition of
the fleet as revealed in the first part of the war with France and
Spain, between 1739 and 1747. The need for reform was strongly
felt, and the politicians of the day were conscious that it would
not be safe to neglect the popular demand for it. In 1745 the
duke of Bedford, the new first lord, invited Anson to join the
admiralty with the rank of rear-admiral of the white. As
subordinate under the duke, or Lord Sandwich, and as first lord
himself, Anson was at the admiralty with one short break from
1745 till his death in 1762. His chiefs in the earlier years left
him to take the initiative in all measures of reform, and supported
him in their own interest. After 17 51 he was himself first lord,
except for a short time in 1756 and 1757. At his suggestion, or
with his advice, the naval administration was thoroughly over-
hauled. The dockyards were brought into far better order, and
though corruption was not banished, it was much reduced. The
navy board was compelled to render accounts, a duty it had long
neglected. A system of regulating promotion to flag rank, which
has been in the main followed ever since, was introduced. The
Navy Discipline Act was revised in 1749, and remained unaltered
till 1865. Courts martial were put on a sound footing. Inspec-
tions of the fleet and the dockyards were established, and the
corps of Marines was created in 1 7 5 5 . The progressive improve-
ment which raised the navy to the high state of efficiency it
attained in later years dates from Anson's presence at the
admiralty. In 1747 he, without ceasing to be a member of the
board, commanded the Channel fleet which on the 3rd of May
scattered a large French convoy bound to the East, and West
Indies, in an action off Cape Finisterre. Several men-of-war
and armed French Indiamen were taken, but the overwhelming
superiority of Anson's fleet (fourteen men-of-war, to six men-of-
war and four Indiamen) in the number and weight of ships
deprives the action of any strong claim to be considered remark-
able. In society Anson seems to have been cold and taciturn.
The sneers of Horace Walpole, and the savage attack of Smollett
in The Adventures of an Atom, are animated by personal or
political spite. Yet they would not have accused him of defects
from which he was notoriously free. In political life he may
sometimes have given too ready assent to the wishes of powerful
politicians. He married the daughter of Lord Chancellor
Hardwicke on the 27th of April 1 748. There were no children of
the marriage. His title of Baron Anson of Soberton was given
him in 1747, but became extinct on his death. The title of
Viscount Anson was, however, created in 1806 in favour of his
great-nephew, the grandson of his sister Janetta and Mr Sam-
brook Adams, whose father had assumed the name and arms of
Anson. The earldom of Lichfield was conferred on the family
in the next generation. A fine portrait of the admiral by
Reynolds is in the possession of the earl of Lichfield, and there
are copies in the National Portrait Gallery and at Greenwich.
Anson's promotions in flag rank were: rear-admiral in 1745,
vice-admiral in 1746, and admiral in 1748. In 1749 he became
vice-admiral of Great Britain, and in 1761 admiral of the fleet.
He died on the 6th of June 1762.

A life of Lord Anson, inaccurate in some details but valuable and
interesting, was published by Sir John Barrow in 1839. The
standard account of his voyage round the world is that by his
chaplain Richard Walter, 1748, often reprinted. A share in the
work has been claimed on dubious grounds for Benjamin Robins,
the mathematician. Another and much inferior account was
published in 1745 by Pascoe Thomas, the schoolmaster of the
r ' Centurion." (D. H.)

ANSON, SIR WILLIAM REYNELL, Bart. (1843- ),
English jurist, was born on the 14th of November 1843, at
Walberton, Sussex, son of the second baronet. Educated at
Eton and Balliol College, Oxford, he took a first class in the final
classical schools in 1866, and was elected to a fellowship of All
Souls in the following year. In 1869 he was called to the bar,
and went the home circuit until 1873, when he succeeded to the
baronetcy. In 1874 he became Vinerian reader in English
law at Oxford, a post which he held until he became, in 1881,
warden of All Souls College. He identified himself both with
local and university interests; he became an alderman of the
city of Oxford in 1892, chairman of quarter sessions for the county
in 1894, was vice-chancellor of the university in 1 898-1 899,
and chancellor of the diocese of Oxford in 1899. In that year
he was returned, without opposition, as M.P. for the university
in the Liberal Unionist interest, and consequently resigned the
vice-chancellorship. In parliament he preserved an active
interest in education, being a member of the newly created
consultative committee of the Board of Education in 1900,
and in 1902 he became parliamentary secretary. He took an
active part in the foundation of a school of law at Oxford,
and his volumes on The Principles of the English Law of Contract
(1884, nth ed. 1906), and on The Law and Custom of the Constitu-
tion in two parts, " The Parliament " and " The Crown " (1886-

1892, 3rd ed. 1907, pt. Lvol. ii.), are standard works.
ANSONIA, a city of New Haven county, Connecticut, U.S.A.,

coextensive with the township of the same name, on the Nauga-
tuck river, immediately N. of Derby and about 12 m. N.W. of
New Haven. It is served by the New York, New Haven &
Hartford railway, and by interurban electric lines running
N., S. and E. Pop. (1900) 12,681, of whom 4296 were foreign
born; (1910 census) 13,152. Land area about 5-4 sq. m.
The city has extensive manufactures of heavy machinery,
electric supplies, brass and copper products and silk goods.
In 1905 the capital invested in manufacturing was $7,625,864,
and the value of the products was $19,132,455. Ansonia,
Derby and Shelton form one of the most important industrial
communities in the state. The city, settled in 1840 and named
in honour of the merchant and philanthropist, Anson Green
Phelps (1781-1853), was originally a part of the township of
Derby; it was chartered as a borough in 1864 and as a city in

1893, when the township of Ansonia, which had been incorporated
in 1889, and the city were consolidated.

ANSTED, DAVID THOMAS (1814-1880), English geologist,
was born in London on the 5th of February 1814. He was
educated at Jesus College, Cambridge, and after taking his degree
of M.A. in 1839 was elected to a fellowship of the college. In-
spired by the teachings of Adam Sedgwick, his attention was
given to geology, and in 1840 he was elected professor of geology
in King's College, London, a post which he held until 1853.
Meanwhile he became a fellow of the Royal Society in 1844,
and from that date until 1847 he was vice-secretary of the
Geological Society and edited its Quarterly Journal. The
practical side of geology now came to occupy his chief attention,
and he visited various parts of Europe and the British Islands
as a consulting geologist and mining engineer. He was also
in 1868 and for many years examiner in physical geography
to the science and art department. He died at Melton near
Woodbridge, on the 13th of May 1880.

Publications. — Geology, Introductory, Descriptive and Practical
(2 vols., 1844); The Ionian Islands (1863); The Applications of
Geology to the Arts and Manufactures (1865); Physical Geography
(1867); Water and Water Supply (Surface Water) (1878); and The
Channel Islands (with R. G. Latham) (1862).

ANSTEY, CHRISTOPHER (1724-1805), English poet, was the
son of the rector of Brinkley, Cambridgeshire, where he was born
on the 31st of October 1724. He was educated at Eton and
King's College, Cambridge, where he distinguished himself for
his Latin verses. He became a fellow of his college (1745), but
the degree of M.A. was withheld from him, owing to the offence
caused by a speech made by him beginning: " Doctores sine
doctrina, magistri artium sine artibus, et baccalaurei baculo
potius qiiam lauro digni." In 1754 he succeeded to the family

ANSTRUTHER— ANT

estates and left Cambridge; and two years later he married
the daughter of Felix Calvert of Albury Hall, Herts. For some
time Anstey published nothing of any note, though he cultivated
letters as well as his estates. Some visits to Bath, however,
where later, in 1770, he made his permanent home, resulted in
1766 in his famous rhymed letters, The New Bath Guide or
Memoirs of the B . . . r . . . d [Blunderhead] Family . . .,
which had immediate success, and was enthusiastically praised
for its original kind of humour by Walpole and Gray. The
Election Ball, in Poetical Letters from Mr Inkle at Bath to his
Wife at Gloucester (1776) sustained the reputation won by the
Guide. Anstey's other productions in verse and prose are now
forgotten. He died on the 3rd of August 1805. His Poetical
Works were collected in 1808 (2 vols.) by the author's son John
(d. 1819), himself author of The Pleader's Guide (1796), in the
same vein with the New Bath Guide.

ANSTRUTHER (locally pronounced Anster), a seaport of Fife-
shire, Scotland. It comprises the royal and police burghs of
Anstruther Easter (pop. 1190), Anstruther Wester (501) and
Kilrenny (2542), and lies 9 m. S.S.E. of St Andrews, having a
station on the North British railway company's branch line from
Thornton Junction to St Andrews. The chief industries include
coast and deep-sea fisheries, shipbuilding, tanning, the making
of cod-liver oil and fish-curing. The harbour was completed in
1877 at a cost of £80,000. The two Anstruthers are divided
only by a small stream called Dreel Burn. James Melville
(1556-1614), nephew of the more celebrated reformer, Andrew
Melville, who was minister of Kilrenny, has given in his Diary
a graphic account of the arrival at Anstruther of a weather-
bound ship of the Armada, and the tradition of the intermixture
of Spanish and Fifeshire blood still prevails in the district.
Anstruther fair supplied William Tennant (1784-1848), who
was born and buried in the town, with the subject of his poem
of " Anster Fair." Sir James Lumsden, a soldier of fortune
under Gustavus Adolphus, who distinguished himself in the
Thirty Years' War, was born in the parish of Kilrenny about
1598. David Martin (1737-1798), the painter and engraver;
Thomas Chalmers (1 780-1847), the great divine; and John
Goodsir (1814-1867), the anatomist, were natives of Anstruther.
Little more than a mile to the west lies the royal and police
burgh of Pittenweem (Gaelic, " the hollow of the cave "), a
quaint old fishing town (pop. 1863), with the remains of a priory.
About 2 m. still farther westwards is the fishing town of St
Monans or Abercromby (pop. 1898), with a fine old Gothic church,
picturesquely perched on the rocky shore. These fisher towns
on the eastern and south-eastern coasts of Fifeshire furnish
artists with endless subjects. Archibald Constable (1774-1827),
Sir Walter Scott's publisher, was born in the parish of Carnbee,
about 3 m. to the north of Pittenweem. The two Anstruthers,
Kilrenny and Pittenweem unite with St Andrews, Cupar and
Crail, in sending one member to parliament.

ANSWER (derived from and, against, and the same root as
swar) , originally a solemn assertion in opposition to some one or
something, and thus generally any counter-statement or defence,
a reply to a question or objection , or a correct solution of a problem .
In English law, the " answer " in pleadings was, previous to the
Judicature Acts 1873-1875, the statement of defence, especially
as regards the facts and not the law. Its place is now taken by a
" statement of defence." " Answer " is the term still applied in
divorce proceedings to the reply of the respondent (see Pleading).
The famous Latin ResponsaPrudentum (" answers of the learned")
were the accumulated views of many successive generations of
Roman lawyers, a body of legal opinion which gradually became
authoritative. In music an " answer " is the technical name in
counterpoint for the repetition by one part or instrument of a
theme proposed by another.

ANT (O. Eng. aemete, from Teutonic a, privative, and maitan,
cut or bite off, i.e. " the biter off "; aimete in Middle English
became differentiated in dialect use to amete, then amte, and so
ant, and also to emete, whence the synonym " emmet," now only
used provincially, " ant " being the general literary form). The
fact that the name of the ant has come down in English from a

thousand years ago shows that this class of insects impressed the
old inhabitants of England as they impressed the Hebrews and
Greeks. The soc"al instincts and industrious habits of ants have
always made them favourite objects of study, and a vast amount
of literature has accumulated on the subject of their structure and
their modes of life.

Characters. — An ant is easily recognized both by the casual
observer and by the student of insects. Ants form a distinct and
natural family (Formicidae) of the great order Hymenoptera, to
which bees, wasps and sawflies also belong. The insects of this
order have mandibles adapted for biting, and two pairs of mem-
branous wings are usually present; the first abdominal segment
(propodeum) becomes closely associated with the fore-body
(thorax) , of which it appears to form a part. In all ants the second
(apparently the first) abdominal segment is very markedly
constricted at its front and hind edges, so that it forms a " node "
at the base of the hind-body (fig. -i), and in many ants the third
abdominal segment is similarly " nodular " in form (fig. 3, b,.c,).
It is this peculiar " waist " that catches the eye of the observer,
and makes the insects so easy of recognition. Another con-
spicuous and well-known feature of ants is the wingless condition
of the " workers," as the specialized females, with undeveloped
ovaries, which form the largest proportion of the population of
ant-communities, are called. Such " workers " are essential to
the formation of a social community of Hymenoptera, and their
wingless condition among the ants shows that their specialization
has been carried further in this family than among the wasps and
bees. Further, while among wasps and bees we find some solftary
and some social genera, the ants as a family are social, though some

1 ' , * 2

Fig. i.— Wood Ant (Formica rufa). 1, Queen; 2, male; 3, worker.

aberrant species are dependent on the workers of other ants. It
is interesting and suggestive that in A few families of digging
Hymenoptera (such as the Mutillidae), allied to the ants, the
females are wingless. The perfect female or " queen " ants (figs.
1, 1, 3, a) often cast their wings (fig. 3,6) after the nuptial flight;
in a few species the females, and in still fewer the males, never
develop wings. (For the so-called " white ants,"which belong to
an order far removed from the Hymenoptera, see Termite.)

Structure. — The head of an ant carries a pair of elbowed feelers,
each consisting of a minute basal and an elongate second segment,
forming the stalk or " scape," while from eight to eleven short
segments make up the terminal " flagellum." These segments
are abundantly supplied with elongate tooth-like projections
connected with nerve-endings probably olfactory in function.
The brain is well developed and its " mushroom-bodies " are
exceptionally large. The mandibles, which are frequently used
for carrying various objects, are situated well to the outside of
the maxillae, so that they can be opened and shut without
interfering with the latter. The peculiar form and arrangement
of the anterior abdominal segments have already been described.
The fourth abdominal segment is often very large, and forms
the greater part of the hind-body; this segment is markedly
constricted at its basal (forward) end, where it is embraced by the
small third segment. In many of those ants whose third abdom-
inal segment forms a second " node," the basal dorsal region of
the fourth segment is traversed by a large number of very fine
transverse stria tions; over these the sharp hinder edge of the
third segment can be scraped to and fro, and the result is a
stridulating organ which gives rise to a note of very high pitch.
For the appreciation of the sounds made by these stridulators,
the ants are furnished with delicate organs of hearing (chordotonal
organs) in the head, in the three thoracic and two of the abdominal
segments and in the shins of the legs.

ANT

The hinder abdominal segments and the stings of the queens
and workers resemble those of other stinging Hymenoptera. But
there are several subfamilies of ants whose females have the
lancets of the sting useless for piercing, although the poison-glands
are functional, their secretion being ejected by the insect, when
occasion may arise, from the greatly enlarged reservoir, the
reduced sting acting as a squirt.

Nests. — The nests of different kinds of ants are constructed in
very different situations; many species (Lasius, for example)
make underground nests; galleries and chambers being hollowed
out in the soil, and opening by small holes on the surface, or
protected above by a large stone. The wood ant (Formica rufa,
fig. i) piles up a heap of leaves, twigs and other vegetable refuse,
so arranged as to form an orderly series of galleries, though the
structure appears at first sight a chaotic heap. Species of
Camponotus and many other ants tunnel in wood. In tropical
countries ants sometimes make their nests in the hollow thorns
of trees or on leaves; species with this habit are believed to make
a return to the tree for the shelter that it affords by protecting it
from the ravages of other insects, including their own leaf -cutting
relations.

Early Stages. — The larvae of ants (fig. 3, e) are legless and
helpless maggots with very small heads (fig. 3, /), into whose
mouths the requisite food has to be forced by the assiduous
' ' nurse ' ' workers. The maggots are tended by these nurses with the
greatest care, and carried to those parts of the nest most favour-
able for their health and growth. When fully grown, the maggot
spins an oval silken cocoon within which it pupates (fig. 3, g).
These cocoons, which may often be seen carried between the
mandibles of the workers, are the "ants' eggs" prized as food for
fish and pheasants. The workers of a Ceylonese ant (Oecophylla
smaragdina) are stated by D. Sharp to hold the maggots between
their mandibles and induce them to spin together the leaves of
trees from which they form their shelters, as the adult ants have
no silk-producing organs.

Origin of Societies. — Ant-colonies are founded either by a single
female or by several in association. The foundress of the nest
lays eggs and at first feeds and rears the larvae, the earliest of
which develop into workers. C. Janet observed that in a nest of
Lasius alienus, established by a single female, the first workers
emerged from their cocoons on the 102nd day. These workers
then take on themselves the labour of the colony, some collecting
food, which they transfer to their comrades within the nest whose
duty is to tend and feed the larvae. The foundress-queen is now
.vaited on by the workers, who supply her with food and spare her
all cares of work, so that henceforth she may devote her whole
energies to egg-laying. The population of the colony increases
fast, and a well-grown nest contains several " queens " and males,
besides a large number of workers. One of the most interesting
features of ant-societies is the dimorphism or polymorphism that
may often be seen among the workers, the same species being
represented by two or more forms. Thus the British " wood ant "
(Formica rufa) has a smaller and a larger race of workers
(•' minor " and " major " forms), while in Ponera we find a blind
race of workers and another race provided with eyes, and in Atla,
Eciton and other genera, four or five forms of yworkers are produced ,
the largest of which, with huge heads and elongate trenchant
mandibles, are known as the " soldier " caste. The development
of such diversely-formed insects as the offspring of the unmodified
females which show none of their peculiarities raises many points
of difficulty for students in heredity. It is thought that the
differences are, in part at least, due to differences in the nature of
the food supplied to larvae, which are apparently all alike. But
the ovaries of worker ants are in some cases sufficiently developed
for the production of eggs, which may give rise parthenogenetic-
ally to male, queen or worker offspring.

Food. — Different kinds of ants vary greatly in the substances
which they use for food. Honey forms the staple nourishment
of many ants, some of the workers seeking nectar from flowers,
working it up into honey within their stomachs and regurgitating
it so as to feed their comrades within the nest, who, in their turn,
pass it on to the grubs. A curious specialization of certain

workers in connexion with the transference of honey has been
demonstrated by H. C. McCook in the American genus Myrme-
cocystus, and by later observers in Australian and African
species of Plagiolepis and allied genera. The workers in question
remain within the nest, suspended by their feet, and serve as
living honey-pots for the colony, becoming so distended by the
supplies of honey poured into their mouths by their foraging
comrades that their abdomens become sub-globular, the pale
intersegmental membrane being tightly stretched between the
widely-separated dark sclerites. The " nurse " workers in the
nest can then draw their supplies from these " honey-pots."
Very many ants live by preying upon various insects, such as
the British " red ants " with well-developed stings (Myrmica
rubra), and the notorious " driver ants " of Africa and America,
the old-world species of which belong to Dorylus and allied genera,
and the new-world species to Eciton (fig. 2, 2, 3). In these ants
the difference between the large, heavy, winged males and females,
and the small, long-legged, active workers, is so great, that various
forms of the same species have been often referred to distinct
genera; in Eciton, for example, the female has a single petiolate
abdominal segment, the worker two. The workers of these
ants range over the country in large armies, killing and carrying
off all the insects and spiders that they find and sometimes
attacking vertebrates. They have been known to enter
human dwellings, removing all the verminous insects contained
therein. These driver ants shelter in temporary nests made in

Fig. 2. — Leaf-cutting and Foraging Ants. 1, Atta cephalus;
2, Eciton drepanophora; 3, Eciton erratica.

hollow trees or similar situations, where the insects may be seen,
according to T. Belt, " clustered together in a dense mass like
a great swarm of bees hanging from the roof."

The harvesting habits of certain ants have long been known,the
subterranean store-houses of Mediterranean species of Aphaeno-
gaster having been described by J. T. Moggridge and A. Forel,
and the complex industries of the Texan Pogonomyrmex barbatus
by H. C. McCook and W. M. Wheeler. The colonies of Aphaeno-
gaster occupy nests extending over an area of fifty to a hundred
square yards several feet below the surface of the ground. Into
these underground chambers the ants carry seeds of grasses and
other plants of which they accumulate large stores. The species
of Pogonomyrmex strip the husks from the seeds and carry them
out of the nest, making a refuse heap near the entrance. The
seeds are harvested from various grasses, especially from
Aristida oligantha, a species known as " ant rice," which often
grows in quantity close to the site selected for the nest, but the
statement that the ants deliberately sow this grass is an error,
due, according to Wheeler, to the sprouting of germinating seeds
which the ants have turned out of their store-chambers.

Perhaps no ants have such remarkable habits as those of the
genus Atta, — the leaf -cutting ants of tropical America (fig. 2,1).
There are several forms of worker in these species, some with
enormous heads, which remain in the underground nests, while
their smaller comrades scour the country in search of suitable
trees, which they ascend, biting off small circular pieces from the
leaves, and carrying them off to the nests. Their labour often
results in the complete defoliation of the tree. The tracks along
which the ants carry the leaves to their nests are often in part
subterranean. H. C. McCook describes an almost straight tunnel,
nearly 450 ft. long, made by Attafervens.

Within the nest, the leaves are cut into very minute fragments
and gathered into small spherical heaps forming a spongy mass,
which — according to the researches of A. Moller — serves as the
substratum for a special fungus (Rozites gongylophora) , the staple
food of the ants. The 'insects cultivate their fungus, weeding out

ANT

mould and bacterial growths, and causing the appearance, on the
surface of their " mushroom garden," of numerous small white
bodies formed by swollen ends of the fungus hyphae. When
the fungus is grown elsewhere than in the ants' nest it produces
gonidia instead of the white masses on which the ants feed,
hence it seems that these masses are indeed produced as the
result of some unknown cultural process. Other genera of
South American ants — A pier stigma and Cyphomyrmex — make
similar fungal cultivations, but they use wood, grain or dung
as the substratum instead of leaf fragments. Each kind of ant
is so addicted to its own particular fungal food that it refuses
disdainfully, even when hungry, the produce of an alien nest.

Guests of Ants. — Many ants feed largely and some almost
entirely on the saccharine secretions of other insects, the best
known of which are the Aphides (plant-lice or " green-fly ").
This consideration leads us to one of the most remarkable and
fascinating features of ant-communities — the presence in the
nests of insects and other small arthropods, which are tended
and cared for by the ants as their " guests," rendering to the ants
in return the sweet food which they desire. The relation between
ants and aphids has often been compared to that between men
and milch cattle. Sir J. Lubbock (Lord Avebury) states that
the common British yellow ants (Lasius flavus) collect flocks of
root-feeding aphids in their underground nests, protect them,
build earthen shelters over them, and take the greatest
care of their eggs. Other ants, such as the British black garden
species (L. niger), go after the aphids that frequent the shoots of
plants. Many species of aphid migrate from one plant to another
at certain stages in their life-cycle when their numbers have
very largely increased, and F. M. Webster has observed ants,
foreseeing this emigration, to carry aphids from apple trees to
grasses. It has been shown by M. Btisgen that the sweet secretion
(honey-dew) of the aphids is not derived, as generally believed,
from the paired cornicles on the fifth abdominal segment, but
from the intestine, whence it exudes in drops and is swallowed
by the ants.

Besides the aphids, other insects, such as scale insects (Coccidae) ,
caterpillars of blue butterflies (Lycaenidae) , and numerous
beetles, furnish the ants with nutrient secretions. The number
of species of beetles that inhabit ants' nests is almost incredibly
large, and most of these are never found elsewhere, being blind,
helpless and dependent on the ants' care for protection and
food; these beetles belong for the most part to the families
Pselaphidae, Paussidae and Staphylinidae. Spring-tails and
bristle-tails (order Aptera) of several species also frequent ants'
nests. While some of these " guest " insects produce secretions
that furnish the ants with food, some seem to be useless inmates
of the nest, obtaining food from the ants and giving nothing
in return. Others again play the part of thieves in the ant
society; C. Janet observed a small bristle-tail (Lepismima)
to lurk beneath the heads of two Lasius workers, while one passed
food to the other, in order to steal the drop of nourishment and
to make off with it. The same naturalist describes the associa-
tion with Lasius of small mites (Antennophortis) which are carried
about by the worker ants, one of which may have a mite beneath
her mouth, and another on either side of her abdomen. On patting
their carrier or some passing ant, the mites are supplied with food,
no service being rendered by them in return for the ants' care.
Perhaps the ants derive from these seemingly useless guests the
same satisfaction as we obtain by keeping pet animals. Recent
advance in our knowledge of the guests and associates of ants is
due principally to E. Wasmann, who has compiled a list of nearly
1500 species of insects, arachnids and crustaceans, inhabiting
ants' nests. The warmth, shelter and abundant food in the
nests, due both to the fresh supplies brought in by the ants and
to the large amount of waste matter that accumulates, must
prove strongly attractive to the various " guests." Some of the
inmates of ants' nests are here for the purpose of preying upon the
ants or their larvae, so that we find all kinds of relations between
the owners of the nests and their companions, from mutual benefit
to active hostility.

Among these associations or guests other species of ants are

not wanting. For example, a minute species (Solenopsis fugax)
lives in a compound nest with various species of Formica,
forming narrow galleries which open into the larger galleries
of its host. The Solenopsis can make its way into the territory
of the Formica to steal the larvae which serve it as food, but the
Formica is too large to pursue the thief when it returns to its own
galleries.

Slaves. — Several species of ants are found in association with
another species which stands to them in the relation of slave to
master. Formica sanguinea is a well-known European slave-
making ant that inhabits England; its workers raid the nests of
F. fusca and other species, and carry off to their own nests pupae
from which workers are developed that live contentedly as
slaves of their captors. F. sanguinea can live either with or
without slaves, but another European ant (Polyergus rufescens)
is so dependent on its slaves— various species of Formica— that
its workers are themselves unable to feed the larvae. The
remarkable genus Aner gates has no workers, and its wingless
males and females are served by communities of Tetramorium
cespitum (fig. 3).

Fig. 3. — Ant, Tetramorium cespitum (Linn.), a, Female;
b, female after loss of wings; c, male; d, worker; e, larva;
g, pupa; /, head of larva more highly magnified. After Marlatt,
Bull. 4 (n.s.) Div. Ent. U. S. Depi. Agriculture.

Senses and Intelligence of Ants. — That ants possess highly
developed senses and the power of communicating with one
another has long been known to students of their habits; the
researches of P. Huber and Sir J. Lubbock (Lord Avebury) on
these subjects are familiar to all naturalists. The insects are
guided by light, being very sensitive to ultra-violet rays, and also
by scent and hearing. Recent experiments by A. M. Fielde
show that an ant follows her own old track by a scent exercised
by the tenth segment of the feeler, recognizes other inmates of
her nest by a sense of smell resident in the eleventh segment, is
guided to the eggs, maggots and pupae, which she has to tend,
by sensation through the eighth and ninth segments, and
appreciates the general smell of the nest itself by means of organs
in the twelfth segment. Lubbock's experiments of inducing
ants to seek objects that had been removed show that they are
guided by scent rather than by sight, and that any disturbance
of their surroundings often causes great uncertainty in their
actions. Ants invite one another to work, or ask for food from

ANTAE— <ANTARA IBN SHADDAD

one another, by means of pat? with the feelers; and they respond
to the solicitations of their guest-beetles or mites, who ask for
food by patting the ants with their feet. In all probability the
actions of ants are for the most part instinctive or reflex, and some
observers, such as A. Bethe, deny them all claim to psychical
qualities. But it seems impossible to doubt that in many cases
ants behave in a manner that must be considered intelligent,
that they can learn by experience and that they possess memory.
Lubbock goes so far as to conclude the account of his experiments
with the remark that " It is difficult altogether to deny them
the gift of reason . . . their mental powers differ from those of
men, not so much in kind as in degree." Wasmann considers
that ants are neither miniature human beings nor mere reflex
automata, and most students of their habits will probably accept
this intermediate position as the most satisfactory. C. L.
Morgan sums up a discussion on Lubbock's experiments in which
the ants failed to utilize particles of earth for bridge^making,
with the suggestive remark that " What these valuable experi-
ments seem to show is that the ant, probably the most intelligent
of all insects, has no claim to be regarded as a rational being."
Nevertheless, ants can teach " rational beings " many valuable
lessons.

Bibliography. — The literature on ants is so vast that it is only
possible to refer the reader to a few of the most important works on
the family. Pierre Huber's Traite des maiurs desfourmis indigenes
(Geneve, 1810) is the most famous of the older memoirs. H. W.
Bates, A Naturalist on the Amazons; T. Belt, A Naturalist in
Nicaragua; H. C. McCook, Agricultural Ant of Texas (Philadelphia,
1880); and A. Moller's paper in Botan. Mitt, aus den^Tropen,
( I 893), contain classical Observations on American species. Sir J.
Lubbock's (Lord Avebury) Ants, Bees and Wasps (London t 1882),
dealing with British and European species, has been followed by
numerous important papers by A. Forel and C. Emery in various
Swiss and German periodicals, and especially by C. Janet in his
Etudes sur les fourmis, les guepes et les abeilles (Paris, &c, 1893-
1904). Forel (Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg. xlvii., 1893, Journ. Bomnay N. H.
Soc. 1900-1903, and Biologia Cent. Americana) and Enifery (Zool.
Jahrb. Syst. viii., 1896) have written on the classification of the
Formicidae. Among recent American writers on habit may be
mentioned W. M. Wheeler (American Naturalist, 1900-1902) and
A. M. Fielde (Proc. Acad. Sci. Philadelphia, 1901); E. Wasmann
(Kritisches Verzeichniss der myrmecophilen und'termitophilen Arthro-
poden, Berlin, 1894, and 3"" Congres Intern. Zool. 1895) is the great
authority on ant-guests and associates. D. Sharp's general account
of ants in the Cambridge Nat. Hist. (vol. vi., 1898) is excellent. For
discussions on intelligence see A. Bethe, Journ. f. d. ges. Physiol.
lxx. (1898); Wasmann, Die psychischen Pahigkeiten der Ameisen
(Stuttgart, 1899) ; C. LI. Morgan, Animal Behaviour (London, 1900.)

(G. H. C.)

ANTAE (a Lat. plural word, possibly from ante, before), an
architectural term given to slightly projecting pilaster strips
which terminate the winged walls of the naos of a Greek temple.
They owe their origin to the vertical posts of timber employed
in the primitive palaces or temples of Greece, as at Tiryns and in
the Heraeum at Olympia, to carry the roof timbers, as no reliance
could be placed on the walls built with unburnt brick or in rubble
masonry with clay mortar. When between these winged walls
there are columns to carry the architrave, so as to form a porch,
the latter is said to be in-antis. (See Temple.)

ANTAEUS, in Greek mythology, a giant of Libya, the son of
Poseidon and Gaea. He compelled all strangers passing through
the country to wrestle with him, and as, when thrown, he derived
fresh strength from each successive contact with his mother
earth, he proved invincible. With the skulls of those whom he
had slain he built a temple to his father. Heracles, in combat
with him, discovered the source of his strength, and lifting him
up from the earth crushed him to death (Apollodorus ii. 5;
Hyginus, Fab. 31). The struggle between Antaeus and Heracles
is a favourite subject in ancient sculpture.

ANTALCIDAS, Spartan soldier and diplomatist. In 393 (or
392 B.C.) he was sent to Tiribazus, satrap of Sardis, to undermine
the friendly relations then existing between Athens and Persia
by offering to recognize Persian claims to the whole of Asia Minor.
The Athenians sent an embassy under Conon to counteract his
efforts. Tiribazus, who was favourable to Sparta, threw Conon
into prison, but Artaxerxes II. (Mnemon) disapproved and
recalled his satrap. In 388 Antalcidas, then commander of the

Spartan fleet, accompanied Tiribazus to the Persian court, and
secured the active assistance of Persia against Athens. The
success of his naval operations in the neighbourhood of the
Hellespont was such that Athens was glad to accept terms of
peace (the " Peace of Antalcidas "), by which (1) the whole of
Asia Minor, with the islands of Clazomenae and Cyprus, was
recognized as subject to Persia, (2) all other' Greek cities — so far
as they were not under Persian rule — were to be independent,
except Lemnos, Imbros and Scyros, which were to belong, as
formerly, to the Athenians. The terms were announced to the
Greek envoys at Sardis in the winter 387-386, and were finally
accepted by Sparta in 386. Antalcidas continued in favour with
Artaxerxes, until the annihilation of Spartan supremacy at
Leuctra diminished his influence. A final mission to Persia,
probably in 367, was a failure, and Antalcidas, deeply chagrined
and fearful of the consequences, is said to have starved himself
to death. ^(See^SPARTA.)

ANTANANARIVO, i.e. "town of a thousand" (Fr. spelling
Tananarive), the capital of Madagascar, situated centrally as
regards the length of the island, but only about 90 m. distant
from the eastern coast, in 18 55' S., 47° 30' E. It is 135 m.
W.S.W. of Tamatave, the principal seaport of the island, with
which it is connected by railway, and for about 60 m. along the
coast lagoons, a service of small steamers. The city occupies a
commanding position, being chiefly built on the summit and slopes
of a long and narrow rocky ridge, which extends north and south
for about 2J m., dividing to the north in a Y-shape, and rising at
its highest point to 690 ft. above the extensive rice plain to the
west, which is itself 4060 ft. above sea-level. For long only the
principal village of the Hova chiefs, Antananarivo advanced
in importance as those chiefs made themselves sovereigns of
the greater part of Madagascar, until it became a town of some
80,000 inhabitants. Until 1869 all buildings within the city
proper were of wood or rush, but even then it possessed several
timber palaces of considerable size, the largest being 120 ft.
high. These crown the summit of the central portion of the ridge;
and the largest palace, with its lofty roof and towers, is the most
conspicuous object from every point of view. Since the intro-
duction of stone and brick, the whole city has been rebuilt and
now contains numerous structures of some architectural pre-
tension, the royal palaces, the houses formerly belonging to the
prime minister and nobles, the French residency, the Anglican
and Roman Catholic cathedrals, several stone churches, as well
as others of brick, colleges, schools, hospitals, courts of justice
and other government buildings, and hundreds of good dwelling-
houses. Since the French conquest in 1895 good roads have been
constructed throughout the city, broad flights of steps connect
places too steep for the formation of carriage roads, and the
central space, called Andohalo, has become a handsome place,
with walks and terraces, flower-beds and trees. A small park has
been laid out near the residency, and the planting of trees and
the formation of gardens in various parts of the city give it a
bright and attractive appearance. Water is obtained from
springs at the foot of the hill, but it is proposed to bring an
abundant supply from the river Ikopa, which skirts the capital
to the south and west. The population, including that of the
suburbs, is 69,000 (1907). The city is guarded by two forts
built on hills to the east and south-west respectively. Including
an Anglican and a Roman Catholic cathedral, there are about
fifty churches in the city and its suburbs, as well as a Mahom-
medan mosque. (J. Sl*)

'ANTARA IBN SHADDAD, Arabian poet and warrior of the
6th century, was famous both for his poetry and his adventurous
life. His chief poem is contained in the M o'allakdt. The account
of his life forms the basis of a long and extravagant romance.
His father Shaddad was a soldier, his mother Zabuba a negro
slave. Neglected at first, he soon claimed attention and respect
for himself, and by his remarkable personal qualities and courage
in battle he gained his freedom and the acknowledgment of his
father. He took part in the great war between the related
tribes of Abs and Dhubyan, which began over a contest of
horses and was named after them the war of Dahis and Ghabra.

ANTARCTIC— ANTELOPE

He died in a fight against the tribe of Tai. His poems, which
are chiefly concerned with fighting or with his love for Abla,
are published in W. Ahlwardt's The Diwans of the six ancient
Arabic Poets (London, 1870); they have also been published
separately at Beirut (1888). As regards their genuineness, cf.
W. Ahlwardt's Bemerkungen iiber die Aechtheit der alten arabi-
schenGedichte (Greifswald, 1872), pp.50 ff. The Romance of ' Antar
(Sirat 'Antar ibn Shaddad) is a work which was long handed
down by oral tradition only, has grown to immense proportions
and has been published in 32 vols, at Cairo, 1307 (a.d. 1889),
and in 10 vols, at Beirut, 1871. It was partly translated by
Terrick Hamilton under the title 'Antar, a Bedoueen Romance
(4 vols., London, 1820).

For an account of the poet and his works see H. Thorbeckes,
Antarah, ein vorislamischer Dichter (Leipzig, 1867), and cf. the Book
of Songs (see Abulfaraj), vol. vii. pp. 148-153. (G. W. T.)

ANTARCTIC (Gr. iuni, opposite, and ap/cros, the Bear, the
northern constellation of Ursa Major), the epithet applied to
the region (including both the ocean and the lands) round the
South Pole. The Antarctic circle is drawn at 66° 30' S., but
polar conditions of climate, &c, extend considerably north of
the area thus enclosed. (See Polar Regions.)

ANTEATER, a term applied to several mammals, but (zoo-
logically at any rate) specially indicating the tropical American
anteaters of the family Myrmecophagidae (see Edentata).
The typical and largest representative of the group is the great
anteater or ant-bear {Myrmecophagajubata) , an animal measuring
4 ft. in length without the tail, and 2 ft. in height at the shoulder.
Its prevailing colour is grey, with a broad black band, bordered
with white, commencing on the chest, and passing obliquely
over the shoulder, diminishing gradually in breadth as it ap-
proaches the loins, where it ends in a point. It is extensively
distributed in the tropical parts of South and Central America,
frequenting low swampy savannas, along the banks of rivers,
and the depths of the humid forests, but is nowhere abundant.
Its food consists mainly of termites, to obtain which it opens
their nests with its powerful sharp anterior claws, and as the
insects swarm to the damaged part of their dwelling, it draws
them into its mouth by means of its long, flexible, rapidly
moving tongue covered with glutinous saliva. The great
anteater is terrestrial in habits, not burrowing underground like
armadillos. Though generally an inoffensive animal, when
attacked it can defend itself vigorously and effectively with its
sabre-like anterior claws. The female produces a single young
at a birth. The tamandua anteaters, as typified by Tamandua
(or Uroleptes) telradaclyla, are much smaller than the great
anteater, and differ essentially from it in their habits, being
mainly arboreal. They inhabit the dense primeval forests
of South and Central America. The usual colour is yellowish-
white, with a broad black lateral band, covering nearly the whole
of the side of the body.

The little or two-toed anteater (Cyclopes or Cycloturus didac-
tylus) is a native of the hottest parts of South and Central
America, and about the size of a rat, of a general yellowish colour,
and exclusively arboreal in its habits. The name scaly anteater
is applied to the pangolin (q.v.); the banded anteater (Myrme-
cobius fasciatus) is a marsupial, and the spiny anteater (Echidna)
is one of the monotremes (see Marsupialia and Monotremata).

ANTE-CHAPEL, the term given to that portion of a chapel
which lies on the western side of the choir screen. In some of
the colleges at Oxford and Cambridge the ante-chapel is carried
north and south across the west end of the chapel, constituting
a western transept or narthex. This model, based on Merton
College chapel (13th century), of which only chancel and tran-
sept were built though a nave was projected, was followed at
Wadham, New and Magdalen Colleges, Oxford, in the new
chapel of St John's College, Cambridge, and in Eton College.
In Jesus College, Cambridge, the transept and a short nave
constitute the ante-chapel; in Clare College an octagonal
vestibule serves the same purpose; and in Christ's, Trinity and
King's Colleges, Cambridge, the ante-chapel is a portion of the
main chapel, divided off from the chancel by the choir screen.

ANTE-CHOIR, the term given to the space enclosed in a
church between the outer gate or railing of the rood screen and
the door of the screen; sometimes there is only one rail, gate or
door, but in Westminster Abbey it is equal in depth to one bay
of the nave. The ante-choir is also called the "fore choir."

ANTE-FIXAE (from Lat. antefigere, to fasten before), the
vertical blocks which terminate the covering tiles of the roof of
a Greek temple; as spaced they take the place of the cymatium
and form a cresting along the sides of the temple. The face of
the ante-fixae was richly carved with the anthemion (q.v.)
ornament.

ANTELOPE, a zoological name which, so far as can be deter-
mined, appears to trace its origin, through the Latin, to Pantholops,
the old Coptic, and Antholops, the late Greek name of the fabled
unicorn. Its adoption by the languages of Europe cannot
apparently be traced farther back than the 4th century of our
era, at which date it was employed to designate an imaginary
animal living on the banks of the Euphrates. By the earlier
English naturalists, and afterwards by Buffon, it was, however,
applied to the Indian blackbuck, which is thus entitled to rank
as the antelope. It follows that the subfamily typified by this
species, in which are included the gazelles, is the one to which
alone the term antelopes should be applied if it were employed
in a restricted and definable sense.

Although most people have a general vague idea of what
constitutes an " antelope," yet the group of animals thus
designated is one that does not admit of accurate limitations or
definition. Some, for instance, may consider that the chamois
and the so-called white goat of the Rocky Mountains are entitled
to be included in the group; but this is not the view held by the
authors of the Book of Antelopes referred to below; and, as a
matter of fact, the term is only a vague designation for a number
of more or less distinct groups of hollow-horned ruminants
which do not come under the designation of cattle, sheep or
goats; and in reality there ought to be a distinct English group-
name for each subfamily into which "antelopes" are sub-
divided.

The great majority of antelopes, exclusive of the doubtful
chamois group (which, however, will be included in the present
article), are African, although the gazelles are to a considerable
extent an Asiatic group. They include ruminants varying in
size from a hare to an ox; and comprise about 150 species,
although this number is subject to considerable variation accord-
ing to personal views as to the limitations of species and races.
No true antelopes are American, the prongbuck (Antilocapra),
which is commonly called " antelope " in the United States,
representing a distinct group; while, as already mentioned, the
Rocky Mountain or white goat stands on the borderland between
antelopes and goats.

The first group, or Tragelaphinae, is represented by the African
elands (Taurotragus) , bongo (Boocercus), kudus (Strepsiceros) and
bushbucks or harnessed antelopes (Tragelaphus) , and the Indian
nilgai (Boselaphus). Except in the bongo and elands, horns are
present only in the males, and these are angulated and generally
spirally twisted, and without rings. The muzzle is naked, small
glands are present on the face below the eyes, and the tail is
comparatively long. The colours are often brilliant; white
spots and stripes being prevalent. The harnessed antelopes, or
bushbucks, are closely allied to the kudus, from which they chiefly
differ by the spiral formed by the horns generally having fewer
turns. They include some of the most brilliantly coloured of all
antelopes; the ornamentation taking the form of vertical white
lines and rows of spots. Usually the sexes differ in colour.
Whereas most of the species have hoofs of normal shape, in some,
such as the nakong, or situtunga (Tragelaphus spekei), these are
greatly elongated, in order to be suited for walking in soft mud,
and these have accordingly been separated as Limnotragus. The
last-named species spends most of its time in water, where it may
be observed not infrequently among the reeds with all but its
head and horns submerged. The true or smaller bushbucks,
represented by the widely spread Tragelaphus scriptus, with
several local races (fig. 1) are sometimes separated as Sylvicapra,

ANTELOPE

leaving the genus Tragelaphus to be represented by the larger
T. angasi and its relatives. The genus Strepsiceros is represented
by the true or great kudu (S. capensis or 5. strepsiceros) , fig. 2,
ranging from the Cape to Somaliland, and the smaller 5. imberbis
of North-East Africa, which has no throat-fringe. The large and
brightly coloured bongo (Boocercus euryceros) of the equatorial
forest-districts serves in some respects to connect the bushbucks
with the elands, having horns in both sexes, and a tufted tail,

but a brilliant orange coat
with vertical white stripes. Still
larger are the elands, of which
the typical Taurolragus oryx of
the Cape is uniformly sandy-
coloured, although stripes ap-
pear in the more northern T.
0. livingstonei; while the black-
necked eland (T. derbianus) of
Senegambia and the Bahr-el-
Ghazal district is a larger and
more brilliantly coloured ani-
mal. The small horns and
bluish-grey colour of the adult
bulls serve to distinguish the
Indian nilgai (q.v.), Boselaphus Iragocamelus, from the other
members of the subfamily.

The second group, which is mainly African, but also repre-
sented in Syria, is that of the Hippotraginae, typified by the
sable antelope (Hippotragus niger) and roan antelope(i?. equinus) ,
but also including the oryxes (Oryx) and addax. These are for
the most part large antelopes, with long cylindrical horns, which
are present in both sexes, hairy muzzles, no face-glands, long
tufted tails and tall thick molars of the ox-type. In Hippo-
tragus the stout and thickly ringed horns rise vertically from a
ridge above the eyes at an obtuse angle to the plane of the lower
part of the face, and then sweep backwards in a bold curve;
while theie are tufts of long white hairs near the eyes. The sable
antelope is a southern species in which both sexes are black or

Fig. 1. — Female Bushbuck

{Tragelaphus scriptus) .

Fig. 2.— Male Kudu (Strepsiceros capensis).

blackish when adult; while the lighter-coloured and larger roan
antelope has a much wider distribution. The South African
blauwbok (H. leucophaeus) is extinct. In the addax (Addax
nasomaculalus) , which is a distinct species common to North
Africa and Syria, the ringed horns form an open spiral
ascending in the plane of the face, and there is long, shaggy,
dark hair on the fore-quarters in winter. The various species
of oryx differ from Hippotragus by the absence of the white
eye-tufts, and by the horns sloping backwards in the plane of
the face. In the South African gemsbuck (Oryx gazella), fig. 3,
the East African beisa or true oryx (O. beisa), and the white
Arabian (0. beatrix) the horns are straight, but in the North
African white oryx or algazel (O. leucoryx or O. algazal) they are

scimitar-shaped; the colour of this species being white and
pale chestnut (see Addax, Oryx, and Sable Antelope).

The third subfamily is the Antilopinae, the members of which
have a much wider geographical range than either of the fore-
going groups. The subfamily is characterized by the narrow
crowns of the molars, which are similar to those of sheep, and
the hairy muzzle. Generally there are face-glands below the
eyes; and the tail is moderate or short. Pits are present in
the forehead of the skull, and the horns are ringed for part of
their length, with a compressed base; their form being often lyrate,
but sometimes spiral. Lateral hoofs are generally present.

Gazelles (Gazella) , which form by far the largest genus of the
subfamily, are inhabitants of open and frequently more or less
desert districts. They are mostly of a sandy colour, with dark
and light markings on the face, and often a dark band on the
flanks. The horns are more or less lyrate, and generally developed
in both sexes; there are frequently brushes of haii on the knees.
Gazelles may be divided into groups. The one to which the North
African G. dorcas belongs is characterized by the presence of

Fig. 3. — Gemsbuck, or Cape Oryx (Oryx gazella).

lyrate or sub-lyrate horns in both sexes, and by the white of
the buttocks not extending on to the haunches. Nearly allied
is the group including the Indian G. bennetti and the Arabian
G. arabica, in which the horns have a somewhat S-shaped
curvature in profile. In the group represented by the African
G. granti, G. thomsoni, G. mohr, &c, the whitcspf the buttocks
often sends a prolongation on to the flanks, the horns are long
and the size is large. Lastly, the Central Asian G. gutturosa,
G. subgutturosd and G. picticaudata form a group in which the
females are hornless and the face-markings inconspicuous or
wanting.

The South African springbuck (Antidorcas euchore) is nearly
related to the gazelles, from which it is distinguished by the
presence on the middle line of the loins of an evertible pouch,
lined with long white hairs capable of erection. It has also one
premolar tooth less in the lower jaw. Formerly these beautiful
antelopes existed in countless numbers on the plains of South
Africa, and were in the habit of migrating in droves which com-
pletely filled entire valleys. Now they are comparatively rare.

The dibatag or Clarke's gazelle (Ammodorcas clarkei) , of Somali-
land, forms a kind of connecting link between the true gazelles
and the gerenuk, this being especially shown in the skull. The
face has the ordinary gazelle-markings; but the rather short
horns— which are wanting in the female — have a peculiar upward
and forward curvature, unlike that obtaining in the gazelles

AxMTELOPE

9 1

and somewhat resembling that of the reedbuck. The neck is
longer and more slender than in ordinary gazelles, and the tail
is likewise relatively long. Although local, these animals are
fairly common in the interior of Somaliland, where they are
known by the name of dibatag. In running, the head and neck
are thrown backwards, while the tail is turned forwards over
the back.

The East African gerenuk (q.v.), or Waller's gazelle (Litho-
cranius walleri), of which two races have been named, is a very
remarkable ruminant, distinguished not only by its exceedingly
elongated neck and limbs, but also by the peculiar hooked form
of the very massive horns of the bucks, the dense structure and
straight profile of the skull, and the extreme slenderness of the
lower jaw.

Astillmoreaberrantgazelle is a small North-East African species
known as the beira ( Dorcatragus melanotis) , with very short horns,
large hoofs and a general appearance recalling that of some of the
members of the subfamily Neotraginae, although in other respects
gazelle-like. The blackbuck (Anlilope cervicapra or A . bezoartica)
of India, a species taking its name from the deep black coat
assumed by the adult bucks, and easily recognized by the graceful,
spirally twisted horns ornamenting the heads of that sex, is
now the sole representative of the genus Anlilope, formerly
taken to embrace the whole of the true antelopes. Large face-
glands are characteristic of the species, which inhabits the open
plains of India in large herds. They leap high in the air, like
the springbuck, when on the move.

With the palla (q.v.) , or impala(^4 cpyceros melampus) , we reach
an exclusively African genus, characterized by the lyrate horns
of the bucks, the absence of lateral hoofs, and the presence of
a pair of glands with black tufts of hair on the hind-feet.

The sheep-like saiga (q.v.) , Saiga tatarica, of the Kirghiz steppes
stands apart from all other antelopes by its curiously puffed
and trunk-like nose, which can be wrinkled up when the animal
is feeding and has the nostrils opening downwards. More or
less nearly related to the saiga is the chiru (q.v.), Pantholops
hodgsoni. of Tibet, characterized by the long upright black horns
of the bucks, and the less convex nose, in which the nostrils
open anteriorly instead of downwards.

The Neotraginae (or Nanotraginae) form an exclusively
African group of small-sized antelopes divided into several,
for the most part nearly related, genera. Almost the only
characters they possess in common are the short and spike-like
horns of the bucks, which are ringed at the base, with smooth
tips, and the large size of the face-gland, which opens by a
circular aperture. Neotragus is represented by the pigmy royal
antelope (A r . pygmaeus) of Guinea; Hylarnus includes one species
from Cameroon and a second from the Semliki forest; while
Ncsotragus comprises the East African suni antelopes, A r .
moschatus and A r . livingstonianus. All three might, however,
well be included in Neotragus. The royal antelope is the smallest
of the Bovidae.

The steinbok (Rhaphiceros campestris) and the grysbok (R.
melanotis) are the best-known representatives of a group char-
acterized by the vertical direction of the horns and the small
gland-pit in the skull; lateral hoofs being absent in the first-
named and present in the second. A bare gland-patch behind
the ear serves to distinguish the oribis or ourebis, as typified by
Oribia montana of the Cape; lateral hoofs being present and
the face-pit large.

From all the preceding the tiny dik-diks (Madoqua) of North-
East Africa differ by their hairy noses, expanded in some species
into short trunks; while the widely spread klipspringer (q.v.),
Oreotragus saltator, with its several local races, is unfailingly
distinguishable by its rounded blunt hoofs and thick, brittle,
golden-flecked hair.

In some respects connecting the last group with the Cervi-
caprinae is the rhebok, or vaal-rhebok (Pelea capreolus), a grey
antelope of the size of a roebuck, with small upright horns in the
bucks recalling those of the last group, and small lateral hoofs,
but no face-glands. In size and several structural. features it
approximates to the more typical Ccrvicaprinac, as represented

by the reedbuck (Cervicapra), and the waterbucks and kobs
■(Cobus or Kobus), all of which are likewise African. These are
medium-sized or large antelopes with naked muzzles, narrow
sheep-like upper molars, fairly long tails, rudimentary or no
face-glands, and pits in the frontal bones of the skull. Reedbuck
(q.v.), or rietbok (Cervicapra), are foxy-red antelopes ranging
in size from a fallow-deer to a roe, with thick bushy tails, for-
wardly curving black horns, and a bare patch of glandular skin
behind each ear. They keep to open country near water. The
waterbuck (q.v.), Cobus, on the other hand, actually seek refuge
from pursuit in the water. They have heavily fringed necks,
tufted tails, long lyrate horns in the bucks (fig. 4) but no glandular
ear-patches. The true waterbuck (C. ellipsiprymnus) , and the
defassa or sing-sing (C. defassa), are the two largest species,
equal in size to red deer, and grey or reddish in colour. Of the
smaller forms or kobs, C. maria and C. leucotis of the swamps of
the White Nile are characterized by the black coats of the adult
bucks; the West African C. cob, and its East African repre-
sentative C. thomasi,- are wholly red antelopes of the size of

Fig. 4. — Waterbuck (Cobus ellipsiprymnus).

roedeer; the lichi or lech we (C. lichi) is characterized by its
long horns, black fore-legs and superior size; while the puku
(C. vardoni), which is also a swamp-loving species from South-
Central Africa, differs from the three preceding species by the
fore-legs being uniformly foxy.

The duikers, or duikerboks (Cephalophus) , of Africa, which
range in size from a large hare to a fallow-deer, typify the sub-
family Cephalophinae, characterized by the spike-like horns of
the bucks, the elongated aperture of the face-glands, the naked
muzzle, the relatively short tail, and the square-crowned upper
molars; lateral hoofs being present. In the duikers themselves
the single pair of horns is set in the midst of a tuft of long hairs,
and the face-gland opens in a long naked line on the side of the
face above the muzzle. The group is represented in India by the
chousingha or four-horned antelope (Tetraceros quadricornis),
generally distinguished by the feature from which it takes its
name (see Duiker).

The last section of the true antelopes is the Bubalinae, repre-
sented by the hartebeest (q.v.), Bubalis, blesbok and sassaby
(Damaliscus), and the gnu (q.v.) or wildebeest (Connochaetes, also
called Catoblepas) , all being African with the exception of one or
two hartebeests which range into Syria. All these are large and
generally more or less uniformly coloured antelopes with horns
in both sexes, long and more or less hairy tails, high withers,
small face-glands, naked muzzles, tall, narrow upper molars, and
the absence of pits in the frontal bones. The long face, high
crest for the horns, which are ringed, lyrate and more or less
strongly angulated, and the moderately long tail, are the
distinctive features of the hartebeests. They are large red

9 2

ANTEMNAE— ANTENOR

antelopes (fig. 5), often with black markings on the face and limbs.
In Damaliscus, which includes, among many other species, the
blesbok and bontebok (D. albifrons and D. pygargus) and the
sassaby or bastard hartebeest (D. lunatus), the face is shorter,
and the horns straighter and set on a less elevated crest. The
colour, too, of these antelopes tends in many cases to purple,
with white markings. From the hartebeest the gnus (fig. 6)

Fig. 5. — Cape Hartebeest (Bubalis cama).

differ by their smooth and outwardly or downwardly directed
horns, broad bristly muzzles, heavy manes and long horse-like
tails. There are two chief types, the white-tailed gnu or black
wildebeest (Connochaetes gnu) of South Africa, now nearly
extinct (fig. 6), and the brindled gnu, or blue wildebeest (C.
iaurinus), which, with some local variation, has a large range in
South and East Africa.

Fig. 6. — White-tailed Gnu, or Black Wildebeest (Connochaetes gnu) .

In concluding this survey of living antelopes, reference may
be made to the subfamily Rupicaprinae (typified by the European
chamois), the members of which, as already stated, are in some
respects intermediate between antelopes and goats. They are
all small or medium-sized mountain ruminants, for the most part
European and Asiatic, but with one North American repre-
sentative. They are heavily built ruminants, with horns of
nearly equal size in both sexes, short tapering tails, large hoofs,
narrow goat-like upper molars, and usually small face-glands.

The horns are generally rather small, upright, ringed at the base,
and more or less curved backwards, but in the takin they are
gnu-like. The group is represented by the European chamois
or gemse (Rupicapra tragus or R. rupicapra), broadly distin-
guished by its well-known hook-like horns, and the Asiatic gorals
( Urotragus) and serows (Nemorhaedus), which are represented by
numerous species ranging from Tibet, the Himalaya, and China,
to the Malay Peninsula and islands, being in the two latter areas
the sole representatives of both antelopes and goats. In the
structure of its horns the North American white Rocky Mountain
goat (Oreamnus) is very like a serow, from which it differs by
its extremely short cannon-bones. In the latter respect this
ruminant resembles the takin (Budorcas) of Tibet, which, as
already mentioned, has horns recalling those of the white-tailed
gnu. Possibly the Arctic musk-ox (Ovibos) may be connected
with the takin by means of certain extinct ruminants, such as
the North American Pleistocene Euceralherium and the European
Pliocene Criotherium (see Chamois, Goral, Serow, Rocky
Mountain Goat and Takin).

Extinct Antelopes s — Only a few lines can be devoted to extinct
antelopes, the earliest of which apparently date from the Euro-
pean Miocene. An antelope from the Lower Pliocene of Northern
India known as Bubalis, or Damaliscus, palaeindicus indicates
the occurrence of the hartebeest group in that country. Cobus
also occurs in the same formation, as does likewise Hippotragus.
Palaeoryx from the corresponding horizon in Greece and Samos
is to some extent intermediate between Hippotragus and Oryx.
Gazelles are common in the Miocene and Pliocene of both Europe
and Asia. Elands and kudus appear to have been represented
in India during the Pliocene; the European Palaeoreas of the
same age seems to be intermediate between the two, while
Protragelaphus is evidently another European representative of
the group. Helicophora is another spiral-horned European
Pliocene antelope, but of somewhat doubtful affinity; the same
being the case with the large Criotherium of the Samos Pliocene,
in which the short horns are curiously twisted. As already
stated, there is a possibility of this latter ruminant being allied
both to the takin and the musk-ox. Palaeotragus and Tragoceros,
of the Lower Pliocene of Greece, at one time regarded as antelopes,
are now known to be ancestors of the okapi.

For antelopes in general, see P. L. Sclater and O. Thomas, The
Book of Antelopes- (4 vols., London, 1894-1900). (R. L.*)

ANTEMNAE (Lat. ante amnem, sc. Anienem; Varro, Ling.
Lot. v. 28), an ancient village of Latium, situated on the W. of
the Via Salaria, 2 m. N. of Rome, where the Anio falls into the
Tiber. It is said to have been conquered by Romulus after the
rape of the Sabine women, and to have assisted the Tarquins.
Certainly it soon lost its independence, and in Strabo's time was
a mere village. The site is one of great strength, and is now
occupied by a fort, in the construction of which traces of the outer
walls and of huts, and several wells and a cistern, all belonging
to the primitive village, were discovered, and also the remains
of a villa of the end of the Republic.

See T. Ashby in Papers of the British School at Rome, iii. 14.

ANTENOR, an Athenian sculptor, of the latter part of the
6th century B.C. He was the author of the group of the tyran-
nicides Harmodius and Aristogeiton, set up by the Athenians on
the expulsion of the Peisistratidae, and carried away to Persia
by Xerxes. A basis with the signature of Antenor, son of
Eumares, has been shown to belong to one of the dedicated
female figures of archaic style which have been found on the
Acropolis of Athens.

See Greek Art ; and E. A. Gardner's Handbook of Greek Sculpture,
i. p. 182.

ANTENOR, in Greek legend, one of the wisest of the Trojan
elders and counsellors. He advised his fellow-townsmen to send
Helen back to her husband, and showed himself not unfriendly
to the Greeks and an advocate of peace. In the later story,
according to Dares and Dictys, he was said to have treacherously
opened the gates of Troy to the enemy; in return for which, at
the general sack of the city, his house, distinguished by a panther's
skin at the door, was spared by the victors. Afterwards,

ANTEQUERA— ANTKESTERIA

according to various versions of the legend, he either rebuilt a
city on the site of Troy, or settled at Cyrene, or became the
founder of Patavium.

Homer, Iliad, iii. 148, vii. 347; Horace, Epp. i. 2. 9; Livy i. 1;
Pindar, Pythia, v. 83; Virgil, A en. i. 242.

ANTEQUERA (the ancient Anticaria), a town of southern
Spain, in the province of Malaga; on the Bobadilla- Granada
railway. Pop. (1900) 31,609. Antequera overlooks the fertile
valley bounded on the S. by the Sierra de los Torcales, and on
the N. by the river Guadalhorce. It occupies a commanding
position, while the remains of its walls, and of a fine Moorish
castle on a rock that overhangs the town, show how admirably
its natural defences were supplemented by art. Besides several
interesting churches and palaces, it contains a fine arch, erected
in 1595 in honour of Philip II., and partly constructed of in-
scribed Roman masonry. In the eastern suburbs there is one of
the largest grave-mounds in Spain, said to be of prehistoric date*
and with subterranean chambers excavated to a depth of 65 ft.
The Pena de los Enamorados, or " Lovers' Peak," is a conspicuous
crag which owes its name to the romantic legend adapted by
Robert Southey (1774-1843) in his Laila and Manuel. Woollen
fabrics are manufactured, and the sugar industry established in
1890 employs several thousand hands; but the majority of the
inhabitants are occupied by the trade in grain, fruit, wine and
oil. Marble is quarried; and at El Torcal, 6 m. south, there is
a very curious labyrinth of red marble rocks. Antequera was
captured from the Moors in 1410, and became until 1492 one of
the most important outposts of the Christian power in Spain.

See C. Fernandez, Historia de Antequera, desde su fondacion
(Malaga, 1842).

ANTEROS, pope for some weeks at the end of the year 235.
He died on the 3rd of January 236. His original epitaph was
discovered in the Catacombs.

ANTHELION (late Gr. dvflijXios, opposite the sun), the
luminous ring or halo sometimes seen in Alpine or polar regions
surrounding the shadow of the head of an observer cast upon a
bank of cloud or mist. The halo diminishes in brightness from
the centre outwards, and is probably due to the diffraction of
light. Under favourable 'conditions four concentric rings may
be seen round the shadow of the observer's head, the outermost,
which seldom appears, having an angular radius of 40 .

ANTHEM, derived from the Gr. kvri<i>Uiva, through the Saxon
antefn, a word which originally had the same meaning as anti-
phony (g.v.). It is now, however, generally restricted to a form
of church music, particularly in the service of the Church of
England, in which it is appointed by the rubrics to follow the
third collect at both morning and evening prayer, " in choirs and
places where they sing." It is just as usual in this place to have
an ordinary hymn as an anthem, which is a more elaborate
composition than the congregational hymns. Several anthems
are included in the English coronation service. The words are
selected from Holy Scripture or in some cases from the Liturgy,
and the music is generally more elaborate and varied than that
of psalm or hymn tunes. Anthems may be written for solo
voices only, for the full choir, or for both, and according to this
distinction are called respectively Verse, Full, and Full with Verse.
Though the anthem of the Church of England is analogous to the
motel of the Roman Catholic and Lutheran Churches, both being
written for a trained choir and not for the congregation, it is as
a musical form essentially English in its origin and development.
The English school of musicians has from the first devoted its
chief attention to this form, and scarcely a composer of any note
can be named who has not written several good anthems. Tallis,
Tye, Byrd, and Farrant in the 1 6th century; Orlando Gibbons,
Blow, and Purcell in the 17th, and Croft, Boyce, James Kent,
James Nares, Benjamin Cooke, and Samuel Arnold in the 18th
were famous composers of anthems, and in more recent times
the names are too numerous to mention.

ANTHEMION (from the Gr. &.vdifitov, a flower), the conven-
tional design of flower or leaf forms which was largely employed
by the Greeks to decorate (1) the fronts of ante-fixae, (2) the
upper portion of the stele or vertical tombstones, (3) the necking

of the Ionic columns of the Erechtheum and its continuation as a
decorative frieze on the walls of the same, and (4) the cymatium
of a cornice. Though generally known as the honeysuckle
ornament, from its resemblance to that flower, its origin will be
found in the flower of the acanthus plant.

ANTHEMIUS, Greek mathematician and architect, who pro-
duced, under the patronage of Justinian (a.d. 532), the original
and daring plans for the church of St Sophia in Constantinople,
which strikingly displayed at once his knowledge and his ignore
ance. He was one of five, brothers — the sons of Stephanus, a
physician of Tralles — who were all more or less eminent in their
respective departments. Dioscorus followed his father's pro-
fession in his native place; Alexander became at Rome one of the
most celebrated medical men of his time; •Olympius was deeply
versed in Roman jurisprudence; and Metrodorus was one of the
distinguished grammarians of the great Eastern capital. It is
related of Anthemius that, having a quarrel with his next-door
neighbour Zeno, he annoyed him in two ways. First, he made a
number of leathern tubes the ends of which he contrived to fix
among the joists and flooring of a fine upper-room in which Zeno
entertained his friends, and then subjected it to a miniature
earthquake by sending steam through the tubes. Secondly, he
simulated thunder and lightning, the latter by flashing in Zeno's
eyes an intolerable light from a slightly hollowed mirror. Certain
it is that he wrote a treatise on burning-glasses. A fragment of
this was published under the title Hepi Trapa86i;uv iir\x avr \i i ^ r ^>v
by L. Dupuy in 1777, and also appeared in 1786 in the forty-
second volume of the Hist, de P Acad, des Inscr.; A. Westermann
gave a revised edition of it in his napa&j&rypdc^oi (Scriptores
rerum mirabilium Graeci), 1839. In the course of constructions
for surfaces to reflect to one and the same point (1) all rays in
whatever direction passing through another point, (2) a set of
parallel rays, Anthemius assumes a property of an ellipse not
found in Apollonius (the equality of the angles subtended at a
focus by two tangents drawn from a point), and (having given
the focus and a double ordinate) he uses the focus and directrix to
obtain any number of points on a parabola — the first instance on
record of the practical use of the directrix.

On Anthemius generally, see Procopius, De Aedific. i. 1 ; Agathias,
Hist. v. 6-9 ; Gibbon's Decline and Fall, cap. xl. (T. L. H-)

ANTHESTERIA, one of the four Athenian festivals in honour
of Dionysus, held annually for three days (nth-i3th) in the month
of Anthesterion (February-March) . The pbject of the festival was
to celebrate the maturing of the wine stored at the previous
vintage, and the beginning of spring. On the first day, called
Pithoigia (opening of the casks), libations were offered from the
newly opened casks to the god of wine, all the household, includ-
ing servants and slaves, joining in the festivities. The rooms and
the drinking vessels in them were adorned with spring flowers, as
were also the children over three years of age. The second day,
named Cho'es (feast of beakers) , was a time of merrymaking. The
people dressed themselves gaily, some in the disguise of the
mythical personages in the suite of Dionysus, and paid a round of
visits to their acquaintances. Drinking clubs met to drink off
matches, the winner being he who drained his cup most rapidly.
Others poured libations on the tombs of deceased relatives. On
the 'part of the state this day was the occasion of a peculiarly
solemn and secret ceremony in one of the sanctuaries of Dionysus
in the Lenaeum, which for the rest of the year was closed. The
basilissa (or basilinna), wife of the archon basileus for the time,
went through a ceremony of marriage to the wine god, in which
she was assisted by fourteen Athenian matrons, called geraerae,
chosen by the basileus and sworn to secrecy. The days on which
the Pithoigia and Choes were celebrated were both regarded as
airo<t>p&8ts (nefasti) and fuapai (" denied "), necessitating ex-
piatory libations; on them the souls of the dead came up from
the underworld and walked abroad; people chewed leaves of
whitethorn and besmeared their doors with tar to protect them-
selves from evil. But at least in private circles the festive
character of the ceremonies predominated. The third day was
named Chytri (feast of pots, from xvrpoSt a P°t), a festival of the
dead. Cooked pulse was offered to Hermes, in his capacity of 3

ANTHIM— ANTHOLOGY

god of the lower world, and to the souls of the dead. Although
no performances were allowed at the theatre, a sort of rehearsal
took place, at which the players for the ensuing dramatic festival
were selected.

The name Anthesteria, according to the account of it given
above, is usually connected with &vdos (" flower," or the
" bloom " of the grape), but A. W. Verrall (Journal of Hellenic
Studies, xx., 1900, p. 115) explains it as a feast of " revocation"
(from avadiffffaadai, to " pray back " or " up "), at which the
ghosts of the dead were recalled to the land of the living (cp. the
Roman mundus patel) . J. E. Harrison (ibid. 100,100, and Prolego-
mena), regarding the Anthesteria as primarily a festival of all
souls, the object of which was the expulsion of ancestral ghosts
by means of placation, explains iridoLyla as the feast of the
opening of the graves (irWos meaning a large urn used for burial
purposes), xo« as the day of libations, and xurpoi as the day of
the grave-holes (not " pots," which is xfrrpcu), i n point of
time really anterior to the nOotyia. E. Rohde and M. P. Nilsson,
however, take the xvrpot. to mean " water vessels," arid connect
the ceremony with the Hydrophoria, a libation festival to pro-
pitiate the dead who had perished in the flood of Deucalion.

See F. Hiller von Gartringen in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclapddie
(s.v.) ; J. Girard in Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquites
(s.v. " Dionysia ") ; and F. A. Voigt in Roscher's Lexikon der
Mythologie (s.v. " Dionysos ") ; J. E. Harrison, Prolegomena to the
Study of Greek Religion (1903) ; M. P. Nilsson, Studia de Dionysiis
Atticis (1900) and Griechische Feste (1906); G. F. Schomann,
Griechische Alterthilmer, ii. (ed. J. H. Lipsius, 1902), p. 516; A.
Mommsen, Feste der Stadt Athen (1898) ; E. Rohde, Psyche (4th ed.,
1907), p. 237.

ANTHIM THE IBERIAN, a notable figure in the ecclesiastical
history of Rumania. A Georgian by birth, he came to Rumania
early in the second half of the 17 th century, as a simple monk.
He became bishop of Ramnicu in 1705, and m 1708 archbishop
of VValachia. Taking a leading part in the political movements of
the time, he came into conflict with the newly appointed Greek
hospodars, and was exiled to Rumelia. But on his crossing the
Danube in 17 16 he was thrown into the water and drowned,
as it is alleged, at the instigation of the prince of Walachia.
He was a man of great talents and spoke and wrote many
Oriental and European languages. Though a foreigner, he soon
acquired a thorough knowledge of Rumanian, and was instru-
mental in helping to introduce that language into the church
as its official language. He was a master printer and an artist
of the first order. He cut the wood blocks for the books which
he printed in Tirgovishtea, Ramnicu, Snagov and Bucharest.
He was also the first to introduce Oriental founts of type into
Rumania, and he printed there the first Arabic missal for the
Christians of the East (R&mnicu, 1702). He also trained
Georgians in the art of printing, and cut the type with which
under his pupil Mihail Ishtvanovitch they printed the first
Georgian Gospels (Tiflis, 1709). A man of great oratorical
power, Anthim delivered a series of sermons (Didahii), and some
of his pastoral letters are models of style and of language as
wejl as of exact and beautiful printing. He also completed a
whole corpus of lectionaries, missals, gospels, &c.

See M. Gaster, Chrestomathie roumaine (1881), and " Gesch.
d. rumanischen Litteratur," in Grober, Grundriss d. rom. Philo-
logie, vol. ii. (1899); and E. Picot, Notice sur Anthim d'lvir (Paris,
1886). (M. G.)

ANTHOLOGY. The term "anthology," literally denoting
a garland or collection of flowers, is figuratively applied to any
selection of literary beauties, and especially to that great body
of fugitive poetry, comprehending about 4500 pieces, by upwards
of 300 writers, which is commonly known as the Greek Anthology.

Literary History of the Greek Anthology. — The art of occasional
poetry had been cultivated in Greece from an early period, —
less, however, as the vehicle of personal feeling, than as the
recognized commemoration of remarkable individuals or events,
on sepulchral monuments and votive offerings: Such com-
positions were termed epigrams, i.e. inscriptions. The modern
use of the word is a departure from the original sense, which
simply indicated that the composition was intended to be en-
graved or inscribed. Such a composition must necessarily be

brief, and the restraints attendant upon its publication concurred
with the simplicity of Greek taste in prescribing conciseness of
expression, pregnancy of meaning, purity of diction and single-
ness of thought, as the indispensable conditions of excellence
in the epigrammatic style. The term was soon extended to
any piece by which these conditions were fulfilled. The transition
from the monumental to the purely literary character of the
epigram was favoured by the exhaustion of more lofty forms of
poetry, the general increase, from the general diffusion of culture,
of accomplished writers and tasteful readers, but, above all,
by the changed political circumstances of the times, which in-
duced many who would otherwise have engaged in public affairs
to addict themselves to literary pursuits. These causes came
into full operation during the Alexandrian era, in which we
find every description of epigrammatic composition perfectly
developed. About 60 B.C., the sophist and poet, Meleager of
Gadara, undertook to combine the choicest effusions of his
predecessors into a single body of fugitive poetry. Collections
of monumental inscriptions, or of poems on particular subjects,
had previously been formed by Polemon Periegetes and others;
but Meleager first gave the principle a comprehensive application.
His selection, compiled from forty-six of his predecessors, and
including numerous contributions of his own, was entitled
The Garland (Sridyavos) ; and in an introductory poem each poet
is compared to some flower, fancifully deemed appropriate to
his genius. The arrangement of his collection was alphabetical,
according to the initial letter of each epigram.

In the age of the emperor Tiberius (or Trajan, according to
others) the work of Meleager was continued by another epigram-
matist, Philippus of Thessalonica, who first employed the term
anthology. His collection, which included the compositions of
thirteen writers subsequent to Meleager, was also arranged
alphabetically, and contained an introductory poem. It was of
inferior quality to Meleager's. Somewhat later, under Hadrian,
another supplement was formed by the sophist Diogenianus
of Heracleia (2nd century A.D.), and Strato of Saxdis compiled
his elegant but tainted Movaa UmSikji (Musa Puerilis) from
his productions and those of earlier writers. No further collection
from various sources is recorded until the time of Justinian,
when epigrammatic writing, especially of an amatory character,
experienced a great revival at the hands of Agathias of Myrina,
the historian, Paulus Silentiarius, and their circle. Their in-
genious but mannered productions were collected by Agathias
into a new anthology, entitled The Circle (KukXos); it was the
first to be divided into books, and arranged with reference to
the subjects of the pieces.

These and other collections made during the middle ages are
now lost. The partial incorporation of them into a single body,
classified according to the contents in 1 5 books, was the work
of a certain Constantinus Cephalas, whose name alone is preserved
in the single MS. of his compilation extant, but who probably
lived during the temporary revival of letters under Constantine
Porphyrogenitus, at the beginning of the 10th century. He
appears to have merely made excerpts from the existing antho-
logies, with tne addition of selections from Lucillius, Palladas,
and other epigrammatists, whose compositions had been published
separately. His arrangement, to which we shall have to recur,,
is founded on a principle of classification, and nearly corresponds
to that adopted by Agathias. His principle of selection is un-
known; it is only certain that while he omitted much that he
should have retained, he has preserved much that would other-
wise have perished. The extent of our obligations may be ascer-
tained by a comparison between his anthology and that of the
next editor, the monk Maximus Planudes (a.d. 1320), who has
not merely grievously mutilated the anthology of Cephalas by
omissions, but has disfigured it by interpolating verses of his
own. We are, however, indebted to him for the preservation
of the epigrams on works of art, which seem to have been
accidentally omitted from our only transcript of Cephalas.

The Planudean (in seven books) was the only recension of the
anthology known at the revival of classical literature, and was first
published at Florence, by Janus Lascaris, in 1494. It long continued

ANTHOLOGY

to be the only accessible collection, for although the Palatine MS.,
the sole extant copy of the anthology of Cephalas, was discovered
in the Palatine library at Heidelberg, and copied by Saumaise
(Salmasius) in 1606, it was not published until 1776, when it was
included in Brunck's Analecta Veterum Poetarum Graecorum. The
MS. itself had frequently changed its quarters. In 1623, having
been taken in the sack of Heidelberg in the Thirty Years' War, it
was sent with the rest of the Palatine Library to Rome as a present
from Maximilian I. of Bavaria to Gregory XV., who had it divided
into two parts, the first of which was by far the larger; thence it
was taken to Paris in 1797. In 1816 it went back to Heidelberg, but
in an incomplete state, the second part remaining at Paris. It is
now represented at Heidelberg by a photographic facsimile. Brunck's
edition was superseded by the standard one of Friedrich Jacobs
(1794-1814, 13 vols.), the text of which was reprinted in a more
convenient form in 1813-1817, and occupies three pocket volumes in
the Tauchnitz series of the classics. The best edition for general
purposes is perhaps that of Diibner in Didot's Bibliotheca (1864-
1872), which contains the Palatine Anthology, the epigrams of the
Planudean Anthology not comprised in the former, an appendix of
pieces derived from other sources, copious notes selected from all
quarters, a literal Latin prose translation by Boissonade, Bothe, and
Lapaume and the metrical Latin versions of Hugo Grotius. A third
volume, edited by E. Cougny, was published in 1890. The best
edition of the Planudean Anthology is the splendid one by van
Bosch and van Lennep (1795-1822). There is also a complete
edition of the text by Stadtmiiller in the Teuhner series.

Arrangement. — The Palatine MS., the archetype of the present
text, was transcribed by different persons at different times,
and the actual arrangement of the collection 'does not correspond
with that signalized in the index. It is as follows: Book 1.
Christian epigrams; 2. Christodorus's description of certain
statues; 3. Inscriptions in the temple at Cyzicus; 4. The pre-
faces of Meleager, Philippus, and Agathias to their respective
collections; 5. Amatory epigrams; 6. Votive inscriptions;
7. Epitaphs; 8. The epigrams of Gregory of Nazianzus; 9.
Rhetorical and illustrative epigrams; 10. Ethical pieces; 11.
Humorous and convivial; 12. Strato's Musa Puerilis; 13.
Metrical curiosities; 14. Puzzles, enigmas, oracles; 15. Mis-
cellanies. The epigrams on works of art, as already stated, are
missing from the Codex Palatinus, and must be sought in an
appendix of epigrams only occurring in the Planudean Anthology.
The epigrams hitherto recovered from ancient monuments and
similar sources form appendices in the second and third volumes
of Dubner's edition.

Style and Value. — One of the principal claims of the Anthology
to attention is derived from its continuity, its existence as a
living and growing body of poetry throughout all the vicissitudes
of Greek civilization. More ambitious descriptions of com-
position speedily ran their course, and having attained their
complete development became extinct or at best lingered only
in feeble or conventional imitations. The humbler strains of the
epigrammatic muse, on the other hand, remained ever fresh and
animated, ever in intimate union with the spirit of the generation
that gave them birth. To peruse the entire collection; accord-
ingly, is as it were to assist at the disinterment of an ancient city,
where generation has succeeded generation on the same site, and
each stratum of soil enshrines the vestiges of a distinct epoch, but
where all epochs, nevertheless, combine to constitute an organic
whole, and the transition from one to the other is hardly percep-
tible. Four stages may be indicated : — 1 . The Hellenic proper, of
which Simonides of Ceos (c. 556-469 B.C.), the author of most of
the sepulchral inscriptions on those who fell in the Persian wars,
is the characteristic representative. This is characterized by a'
simple dignity of phrase, which to a modern taste almost verges
upon baldness, by a crystalline transparency of diction, and by
an absolute fidelity to the original conception of the epigram.
Nearly all the pieces of this era are actual bona fide inscriptions
or addresses to real personages, whether living or deceased;
narratives, literary exercises, and sports of fancy are exceedingly
rare. 2. The epigram received a great development in its second
or Alexandrian era, when its range was so extended as to include
anecdote, satire, and amorous longing; when epitaphs and votive
inscriptions were composed on imaginary persons and things,
and men of taste successfully attempted the same subjects in
mutual emulation, or sat down to compose verses as displays of
their ingenuity. The result was a great gain in richness of style

and general interest, counterbalanced by a falling off in purity of
diction and sincerity of treatment. The modification — a perfectly
legitimate one, the resources of the old style being exhausted —
had its real source in the transformation of political life, but may
be said to commence with and to find its best representative in
the playful and elegant Leonidas of Tarentum, a contemporary
of Pyrrhus, and to close with Antipater of Sidon, about 140 B.C.
(or later). It should be noticed, however, that Callimachus, one
of the most distinguished of the Alexandrian poets, affects the
sternest simplicity in his epigrams, and copies the austerity of
Simonides with as much success as an imitator can expect.

3. By a slight additional modification in the same direction, the
Alexandrian passes into what, for the sake of preserving the
parallelism with eras of Greek prose literature, we may call
the Roman style, although the peculiarities of its principal
representative are decidedly Oriental. Meleager of Gadara was a
Syrian; his taste was less severe, and his temperament more
fervent than those of his Greek predecessors; his pieces are
usually erotic, and their glowing imagery sometimes reminds us of
the Song of Solomon. The luxuriance of his fancy occasionally
betrays him into far-fetched conceits, and the lavishness of his
epithets is only redeemed by their exquisite felicity. Yet his
effusions are manifestly the offspring of genuine feeling, and his
epitaph on himself indicates a great advance on the exclusive-
ness of antique Greek patriotism, and is perhaps the first clear
enunciation of the spirit of universal humanity characteristic
of the later Stoic philosophy. His gaiety and licentiousness
are imitated and exaggerated by his somewhat later contem-
porary, the Epicurean Philodemus, perhaps the liveliest of all
the epigrammatists; his fancy reappears with diminished
brilliancy in Philodemus's contemporary, Zonas, in Crinagoras,
who wrote under Augustus, and in Marcus Argentarius, of un-
certain date; his peculiar gorgeousness of colouring remains
entirely his own. At a later period of the empire another
genre, hitherto comparatively in abeyance, was developed, the
satirical. Lucillius, who flourished under Nero, and Lucian, more
renowned in other fields of literature, display a remarkable
talent for shrewd, caustic epigram, frequently embodying moral
reflexions of great cogency, often lashing vice and folly with
signal effect, but not seldom indulging in mere trivialities, or
deformed by scoffs at personal blemishes. This style of com-
position is not properly Greek, but Roman; it answers to the
modern definition of epigram, and has hence attained a celebrity
in excess of its deserts. It is remarkable, however, as an almost
solitary example of direct Latin influence on Greek literature.
The same style obtains with Palladas, an Alexandrian gram-
marian of the 4th century, the last of the strictly classical epi-
grammatists, and the first to be guilty of downright bad taste.
His better pieces, however, are characterized by an austere
ethical ifnpressiveness, and his literary position is very interesting
as that of an indignant but despairing opponent of Christianity.

4. The fourth or Byzantine style of epigrammatic composition
was cultivated by the beaux-esprits of the court of Justinian. To
a great extent this is merely imitative, but the circumstances
of the period operated so as to produce a species of originality.
The peculiarly ornate and rechercM diction of Agathias and his
compeers is not a merit in itself, but, applied for .the first time,
it has the effect of revivifying an old form, and many of their
new locutions are actual enrichments of the language. The
writers, moreover, were men of genuine poetical feeling, ingenious
in invention, and capable of expressing emotion with energy
and liveliness; the colouring of their pieces is sometimes highly
drama tici

It wojild be hard to exaggerate the substantial value of the
Anthology, whether as a storehouse of facts bearing on antique
manners, customs and ideas, or as one among the influences
which have contributed to mould the literature of the modern
world. The multitudinous votive inscriptions, serious and
sportive, connote the phases of Greek religious sentiment, from
pious awe to irreverent familiarity and sarcastic scepticism ; the
moral tone of the nation at various periods is mirrored with cor-
responding fidelity; the sepulchral inscriptions admit us into

9 6

ANTHON— ANTHONY

the inmost sanctuary of family affection, and reveal a depth and
tenderness of feeling beyond the province of the historian to
depict, which we should not have surmised even from the
dramatists; the general tendency of the collection is to display
antiquity on its most human side, and to mitigate those contrasts
with the modern world which more ambitious modes of com-
position force into relief. The constant reference to the details
of private life renders the Anthology an inexhaustible treasury
for the student of archaeology; art, industry and costume
receive their fullest illustration from its pages. Its influence on
European literatures will be appreciated in proportion to the
inquirer's knowledge of each. The further his researches extend,
the greater will be his astonishment at the extent to which the
Anthology has been laid under contribution for thoughts which
have become household words in all cultivated languages, and at
the beneficial effect of the imitation of its brevity, simplicity,
and absolute verbal accuracy upon the undisciplined luxuriance
of modern genius.

Translations, Imitations, &c. — The best versions of the Anthology
ever made are the Latin renderings of select epigrams by Hugo
Grotius. They have not been printed separately, but will be found
in Bosch and Lennep's edition of the Planudean Anthology, in the
Didot edition, and in Dr Wellesley's Anthologia Polyglotta. The
number of more or less professed imitations in modern languages
is infinite, that of actual translations less considerable. French and
Italian, indeed, are ill adapted to this purpose, from their incapacity
of approximating to the form of the original, and their poets have
usually contented themselves with paraphrases or imitations, often
exceedingly felicitous. F. D. Deheque's French prose translation,
however (1863), is most excellent and valuable. The German
language alone admits of the preservation of the original metre — a
circumstance advantageous to the German translators, Herder and
Jacobs, who have not, however, compensated the loss inevitably
consequent upon a change of idiom by any added beauties of their
own. Though unfitted to reproduce the precise form, the English
language, from its superior terseness, is better adapted to preserve
the spirit of the original than the German; and the comparative
ill success of many English translators must be chiefly attributed to
the extremely low standard of fidelity and brevity observed by
them. Bland, Merivale, and their associates (1806-1813), are often
intolerably diffuse and feeble, from want, not of ability, but of
taking pains. Archdeacon Wrangham's too rare versions are much
more spirited; and John Sterling's translations of the inscriptions
of Simonides deserve high praise. Professor Wilson (Blackwood's
Magazine, 1833-1835) collected and commented upon the labours of
these and other translators, with his accustomed critical insight and
exuberant geniality, but damaged his essay by burdening it with
the indifferent attempts of William Hay. In 1849 Dr Wellesley,
principal of New Inn Hall, Oxford, published his Anthologia Poly-
glotta, a most valuable collection of the best translations and imita-
tions in all languages, with the original text. In this appeared some
admirable versions by Goldwin Smith and Dean Merivale, which,
with the other English renderings extant at the time, will be found
accompanying the literal prose translation of the Public School
Selections, executed by the Rev. George Burges for Bohn's Classical
Library (1854). This is a useful volume, but the editor's notes are
worthless. In 1864 Major R. G. Macgregor published an almost
complete translation of the Anthology, a work whose stupendous
industry and fidelity almost redeem the general mediocrity of the
execution. Idylls and Epigrams, by R. Garnett (1869, reprinted
1892 in the Cameo series), includes about 140 translations or imita-
tions, with some original compositions in the same style. Recent
translations (selections) are: J. W. Mackail, Select Epigrams from
the Greek Anthology (with text, introduction, notes, and prose
translation), 1890, revised 1906, a most charming volume; Graham
R. Tomson (Mrs Marriott Watson), Selections from the Greek
A.nthology (1889); W. H. D. Rouse, Echo of Greek Song (1899);
L. C. Perry, From the Garden of Hellas (New York, 1891); W. R.
Paton, Love Epigrams (1898). An agreeable little volume on the
Anthology, by Lord Neaves, is one of Collins's series of Ancient
Classics for Modern Readers. The earl of Cromer, with all the cares
of Egyptian administration upon him, found time to translate and
publish an elegant volume of selections (1903). ' Two critical con-
tributions to the subject should be noticed, the Rev. James Davies's
essay on Epigrams in the Quarterly Review (vol. cxvii.), especially
valuable for its lucid illustration of the distinction between Greek
and Latin epigram; and the brilliant disquisition in J. A. Symonds's
Studies of the Greek Poets (1873; 3rd ed., 1893).

Latin Anthology. — The Latin Anthology is the appellation
bestowed upon a collection of fugitive Latin verse, from the age
of Ennius to about a.d. iooo, formed by Peter Burmann the
Younger. Nothing corresponding to the Greek anthology is
known to have existed among the Romans, though professional

epigrammatists like Martial published their volumes on their
own account, and detached sayings were excerpted from authors
like Ennius and Publius Syrus, while the Priapeia were probably
but one among many collections on special subjects. The first
general collection of scattered pieces made by a modern scholar
was Scaliger's Catalecta veterum Poetarum (1573), succeeded by •
the more ample one of Pithoeus, Epigrammata et Poemata e
Codicibus et Lapidibus collecta (1590). Numerous additions,
principally from inscriptions, continued to be made, and in
I 7S9 _I 773 Burmann digested the whole into his Anthologia
veterum Latinorum Epigrammatum et Poematum. This, occa-
sionally reprinted, was the standard edition until 1869, when
Alexander Riese commenced a new and more critical recension,
from which many pieces improperly inserted by Burmann are
rejected, and his classified arrangement is discarded for one
according to the sources whence the poems have been derived.
The first volume contains those found in MSS., in the order of
the importance of these documents; those furnished by inscrip-
tions following. The first volume (in two parts) appeared in
1869-1870, a second edition of the first part in 1894, and the
second volume, Carmina Epigraphica (in two parts), in 1895-
1897, edited by F. Bucheler. An Anthologiae Latinae Supple-
menta, in the same series, followed. Having been formed by
scholars actuated by no aesthetic principles of selection, but
solely intent on preserving everything they could find, the Latin
anthology is much more heterogeneous than the Greek, and
unspeakably inferior. The really beautiful poems of Petronius
and Apuleius are more properly inserted in the collected editions
of their writings, and more than half the remainder consists of
the frigid conceits of pedantic professional exercises of gram-
marians of a very late period of the empire, relieved by an
occasional gem, such as the apostrophe of the dying Hadrian to
his spirit, or the epithalamium of Gallienus. The collection is
also, for the most part, too recent in date, and too exclusively
literary in character, to add much to our knowledge of classical
antiquity. The epitaphs are interesting, but the genuineness of
many of them is very questionable. (R. G.)

ANTHON, CHARLES (1797-1867), American classical scholar,
was born in New York city on the 19th of November 1797.
After graduating with honours at Columbia College in 1815, he
began the study of law, and in 1819 was admitted to the bar,
but never practised. In 1820 he was appointed assistant pro-
fessor of Greek and Latin in his old college, full professor ten
years later, and at the same time headmaster of the grammar
school attached to the college, which post he held until 1864.
He died at New York on the 29th of July 1867. He produced
for use in colleges and schools a large number of classical works,
which enjoyed great popularity, although his editions of classical
authors were by no means in favour with schoolmasters, owing to
the large amount of assistance, especially translations, contained
in the notes.

ANTHONY, SAINT, the first Christian monk, was born in
Egypt about 250. At the age of twenty he began to practise an
ascetical life in the neighbourhood of his native place, and after
fifteen years of this life he withdrew into solitude to a mountain
by the Nile, called Pispir, now Der el Memun, opposite Arsinog
in the Fayum. Here he lived strictly enclosed in an old fort for
twenty years. At last in the early years of the 4th century he
emerged from his retreat and set himself to organize the monastic
life of the crowds of monks who had followed him and taken up
their abode in the caves around him. After a time, again in
pursuit of more complete solitude, he withdrew to the mountain
by the Red Sea, where now stands the monastery that bears his
name (Der Mar Antonios). Here he died about the middle of
the 4th century. His Life states that on two occasions he went
to Alexandria, to strengthen the Christians in the Diocletian
persecution and to preach against Arianism. Anthony is
recognized as the first Christian monk and the first organizer
and father of Christian monachism (seeMoNASTiciSM). Certain
letters and sermons are attributed to him, but their authenticity
is more than doubtful. The monastic rule which bears his name
was not written by him, but was compiled out of these writings

ANTHONY OF PADUA— ANTHOZOA

and out of discourses and utterances put into his mouth in the
Life and the Apophlhegmata Patrum. According to this rule
live a number of Coptic Syrian and Armenian monks to this day.
The chief source of information about St Anthony is the Life,
attributed to St Athanasius. This attribution, as also the
historical character of the book, and even the very existence of
St Anthony, were questioned and denied by the sceptical criticism
of thirty years ago; but such doubts are no longer entertained
by critical scholars.

The Greek Vila is among the works of St Athanasius ; the almost
contemporary Latin translation is among Rosweyd's Vitae Patrum
(Migne, Patrol. Lat. lxxiii.) ; an English translation is in the Athan-
asius volume of the " Nicene and Post-Nicene Library." Accounts
of St Anthony are given by Card. Newman, Church of the Fathers
(Historical Sketches) and Alban Butler, Lives of the Saints (Jan. 17).
Discussions of the historical and critical questions raised will be
found in E. C. Butler's Lausiac History of Palladius (1898, 1904),
Part I. pp. 197, 215-228; Part II. pp. ix.-xii. (E. C. B.)

ANTHONY OF PADUA, SAINT (1195-1231), the most cele-
brated of the followers of Saint Francis of Assisi, was born at
Lisbon on the 1 5 th of August 1 1 9 5 . In his fifteenth year he entered
the Augustinian order, and subsequently joined the Franciscans
in 1220. He wished to devote himself to missionary labours in
North Africa, but the ship in which he sailed was cast by a storm
on the coast of Sicily, whence he made his way to Italy. He
taught theology at Bologna, Toulouse, Montpellier and Padua,
and won a great reputation as a preacher throughout Italy. He
was the leader of the rigorous party in the Franciscan order
against the mitigations introduced by the general Elias. His
death took place at the convent of Ara Coeli, near Padua, on the
13th of June 1231. He was canonized by Gregory IX. in the
following year, and his festival is kept on the 13th of June. He
is regarded as the patron saint of Padua and of Portugal, and
is appealed to by devout clients for finding lost objects. The
meagre accounts of his life which we possess have been supple-
mented by numerous popular legends, which represent him
as a continuous worker of miracles, and describe his marvellous
eloquence by pictures of fishes leaping out of the water to
hear him. There are many confraternities established in his
honour throughout Christendom, and the number of "pious"
biographies devoted to him would fill many volumes.

The most trustworthy modern works are by A. Lepitre, St Antoine
de Padoue (Paris, 1902, in Les Saints series: good bibliography; Eng.
trans, by Edith Guest, London, 1902), and by Leopold de Cherance,
5/ Antoine de Padoue (Paris, 1895; Eng. trans., London, 1896). His
works, consisting of sermons and a mystical commentary on the
Bible, were published in an appendix to those of St Francis, in the
Annates Minorum of Luke Wadding (Antwerp, 1623), and are also
reproduced by Horoy, Medii aevi bibliotheca patristica (1880, vi.
PP- 555 et sqq) ; see art. " Antonius von Padua " in Herzog-Hauck,
Realencyklopddie.

ANTHONY, SUSAN BROWNELL (1820-1906), American
reformer, was born at Adams, Massachusetts, on the 15th of
February 1820, the daughter of Quakers. Soon after her birth,
her family moved to the state of New York, and after 1845 she
lived in Rochester. She received her early education in a school
maintained by her father for his own and neighbours' children,
and from the time she was seventeen until she was thirty-two
she taught in various schools. In the decade preceding the
outbreak of the Civil War she took a prominent part in the
anti-slavery and temperance movements in New York, organizing
in 1852 the first woman's state temperance society in America, and
in 1856 becoming the agent for New York state of the American
Anti-slavery Society. After 1854 she devoted herself almost
exclusively to the agitation for woman's rights, and became
recognized as one of the ablest and most zealous advocates,
both as a public speaker and as a writer, of the complete legal
equality of the two sexes. From 1868 to 1870 she was the
proprietor of a weekly paper, The Revolution, published in New
York, edited by Mrs Elizabeth Cady Stanton, a*id having for
its motto, " The true republic— men, their rights and nothing
more; women, their rights and nothing less." She was vice-
president-at-large of the National Woman's Suffrage Association
from the date of its organization in 1869 until 1892, when she
became president. For casting a vote in the presidential election

11. 4

of 1872, as, she asserted, the Fourteenth Amendment to the
Federal Constitution entitled her to do, she was arrested and
fined $100, but she never paid the fine. In collaboration with
Mrs Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Mrs Matilda Joslyn Gage, and Mrs
Ida Husted Harper, she published The History of Woman
Suffrage (4 vols., New York, 1884-1887). She died at Rochester,
New York, on the 13th of March 1906.

See Mrs Ida Husted Harper's Life and Work of Susan B. Anthony
(3 vols., Indianapolis, I898-1908).

ANTHOZOA (i.e. "flower-animals"), the zoological name
for a class of marine polyps forming " coral " (?.».). Although
corals have been familiar objects since the days of antiquity,
and the variety known as the precious red coral has been for a
long time an article of commerce in the Mediterranean, it was only
in the 18th century that their true nature and structure came to
be understood. By the ancients and the earlier naturalists
of the Christian era they were regarded either as petrifactions or
as plants, and many supposed that they occupied a position
midway between minerals and plants. The discovery of the
animal nature of red coral is due to J. A. de Peyssonel, a native
of Marseilles, who obtained living specimens from the coral
fishers on the coast of Barbary and kept them alive in aquaria.
He was thus able to see that the so-called " flowers of coral "
were in fact nothing else than minute polyps resembling sea-
anemones. His discovery, made in 1727, was rejected by the
Academy of Sciences of France, but eventually found acceptance
at the hands of the Royal Society of London, and was published
by that body in 1751. The structure and classification of polyps,
however, were at that time very imperfectly understood, and
it was fully a century before the true anatomical characters
and systematic position of corals were placed on a secure basis.

The hard calcareous substance to which the name coral is
applied is the supporting skeleton of certain members of the
Anthozoa, one of the classes of the phylum Coelentera. The most
familiar Anthozoan is the common sea-anemone, Actinia equina,
L., and it will serve, although it does not form a skeleton or
corallum, as a good example of the structure of a typical Antho-
zoan polyp or zooid. The individual animal or zooid of Actinia
equina has the form of a column fixed by one extremity, called
the base, to a rock or other object, and bearing at the opposite
extremity a crown of tentacles. The tentacles surround an area
known as the peristome, in the middle of which there is an
elongated mouth-opening surrounded by tumid lips. The mouth
does not open directly into the general cavity of the body, as
is the case in a hydrozoan polyp, but into a short tube called
the stomodaeum, which in its turn opens below into the general
body-cavity or coelenteron. In Actinia and its allies, and most
generally, though not invariably, in Anthozoa, the stomodaeum
is not circular, but is compressed from side to side so as to be
oval or slit-like in transverse section. At each end of the oval
there is a groove lined by specially long vibratile cilia. These
grooves are known as the sulcus and sulculus, and will be more
particularly described hereafter. The elongation of the mouth
and stomodaeum confer a bilateral symmetry on the body of the
zooid, which is extended to other organs of the body. In Actinia,
as in all Anthozoan zooids, the coelenteron is not a simple cavity,
as in a Hydroid, but is divided by a number of radial folds or
curtains of soft tissue into a corresponding number of radial
chambers. These radial folds are known as mesenteries, and
their position and relations may be understood by reference
to figs. 1 and 2. Each mesentery is attached by its upper
margin to the peristome, by its outer margin to the body-wall,
and by its lower margin to the basal disk. A certain number of
mesenteries, known as complete mesenteries, are attached by
the upper parts of their internal margins to the stomodaeum,
but below this level their edges hang in the coelenteron. Other
mesenteries, called incomplete, are not attached to the stomo-
daeum, and their internal margins are free from the peristome
to the basal disk. The lower part of the free edge of every
mesentery, whether complete or incomplete, is thrown into
numerous puckers or folds, and is furnished with a glandular
thickening known as a mesenterial filament. The reproductive

ANTHOZOA

Fig. i. — Diagrammatic longitudinal
section of an Anthozoan zooid.

in, Mesentery.

/, Tentacles.

st, Stomodaeum.

sc, Sulcus.

r, Rotteken's muscle.

s, Stoma.

Im, Longitudinal
muscle.
Diagonal
muscle.
Gonads.

organs or gonads are borne on the mesenteries, the germinal
cells being derived from the inner layer or endoderm.

In common with all Coelenterate animals, the walls of the
columnar body and also the tentacles and peristome of Actinia
are composed of three layers of tissue. The external layer,

or ectoderm, is made up
of cells, and contains
also muscular and ner-
vous elements. The pre-
ponderating elements of
the ectodermic layer are
elongated columnar
cells, each containing a
nucleus, and bearing
cilia at their free ex-
tremities. Packed in
among these are gland
cells, sense cells, and
cnidoblasts. The last-
named are specially
numerous on the ten-
tacles and on some other
regions of the body, and
produce the well-known
" thread cells," or
nemalocysts, so char-
acteristic of the Coe-
lentera. The inner
layer or endoderm is also a cellular layer, and is chiefly
made up of columnar cells, each bearing a cilium at its free ex-
tremity and terminating internally in a long muscular fibre.
Such cells, made up of epithelial and musculaT components, are

known as ©pithelio-mus-
cular or myo-epithelial
cells. In Actinians the
epithelio-muscular cells of
the endoderm are crowded
with yellow spherical
bodies, which are unicellu-
lar plants or Algae, living
symbiotically in the
tissues of the zooid. The
endoderm contains in
addition gland cells and
nervous elements. The
middle layer or mesogloea
is not originally a cellular
layer, but a gelatinoid
structureless substance,
secreted by the two cellular
layers. In the course of
development, however,
cells from the ectoderm
and endoderm may mi-
grate into it. In Actinia
equina the mesogloea con-
sists of fine fibres imbedded

Fig. 2. — i, Portion of epithelium
from the tentacle of an Actinian,
showing three supporting cells and one in a homogeneous matrix,
sense cell (sc) ; 2, a cnidoblast with an d between the fibres
enclosed nematocyst from the same
specimen; 3 and 4, two forms of
gland cell from the stomodaeum ;
50, 56, epithelio-muscular cells from
the tentacle in different states of con-
traction; 5c, an epithelio-muscular
cell from the endoderm, containing a
symbiotic zooxanthella ; 6, a ganglion
cell from theectoderm of the peristome.
(After O. and R. Hertwig.)

ible into two sub-classes, sharply marked off from one another
by definite anatomical characters. These are the Alcyonaria
and the Zoantharia. To the first-named belong the precious
red coral and its allies, the sea-fans or Gorgoniae; to the
second belong the white or Madreporarian corals.

are minute branched or
spindle-shaped cells. For
further details of the
structure of Actinians,
the reader should consult
the work of 0. and R.
Hertwig.
The Anthozoa are divis-

Alcyonaria. — In this sub-class the zooid (fig. 3) has very constant
anatomical characters, differing in some important respects from the
Actinian zooid, which has been taken as a type. There is only one
ciliated groove, the sulcus, in the stomodaeum. There are always
eight tentacles, which are hollow and fringed on their sides, with
hollow projections or pinnae; and always eight mesenteries, all of
which are complete, i.e. inserted on the stomodaeum. The mesen-
teries are provided with well-developed longitudinal retractor
muscles, supported on longitudinal folds or plaits of the mesogloea,
so that in cross-section they have a branched appearance. These
muscle-banners, as they
are called, have a
highly characteristic
arrangement; they are
all situated on those
faces of the mesenteries
which look towards the
sulcus (fig. 4). Each
mesentery has a fila-
ment; but two of them,
namely, the pair
farthest from the sul-
cus, are longer than the
rest, and have a differ-
ent form of filament.
It has been shown that
these asulcar filaments
are derived from the
ectoderm, the re- Q
mainder from the en-
doderm. The only
exceptions to this
structure are found in
the arrested or modified
zooids, which occur in Fig. 3. — An expanded Alcyonarian zooid,
many of the colonial showing the mouth surrounded by eight
Alcyonaria. In these pinnate tentacles, st, Stomodaeum in the
the tentacles are centre of the transparent body; m, mes-
st tinted or suppressed enteries; asm, asulcar mesenteries; B,
and the mesenteries are spicules, enlarged.
ill-developed, but the

sulcus is unusually large and has long cilia. Such modified zooids are
called siphonozpoids, their function being to drive currents of fluid
through the canal-systems of the colonies to which they belong.
With very few exceptions a calcareous skeleton is present in all
Alcyonaria ; it usually consists of spicules of carbonate of lime, each
spicule being formed within an ectodermic cell (fig. 3, B). Most
commonly the spicule-forming cells pass out of the ectoderm and are
imbedded in the mesogloea, where they may remain separate from
one another or may be fused together to form a strong mass. In
addition to the spicular skeleton an organic horny skeleton is fre-
quently present, either in
the form of a horny ex-
ternal investment (Cor-
nularia), or an internal
axis (Gorgonia), or it may
form a matrix in which
spicules are imbedded
(Keroeides, Melitodes).

Nearly all the Alcyonaria
are colonial. Four solitary
species have been de-
scribed, viz. Haimea
funebris and H. hyalina,
Hartea elegans, and Mon-
oxenia Darwinii; but it is
doubtful whether these are
not the young forms of
colonies. For the present
the solitary forms may be
placed in a grade, Protal-
cyonacea; and the colonial
forms may be grouped in
another grade, Synalcyon-

acea. Every Alcyonarian FlG ,_ T ransverse section of an
colony is developed by A , cyonari an zooid. mm, Mesenteries;
budding from a single mb musde banners; sc sulcus . stt
parent zooid The buds stomodaeum .
are not direct outgrowths

of the body-wall, but are formed on the courses of hollow out
growths of the base or body-wall, called solenia. These form a
more or less complicated canal system, lined by endoderm, and
communicating with the cavities of the zooids. The most simple
form of budding is found in the genus Cornularia, in which the
mother zooid gives off from its base one or more simple radiciform
outgrowths. Each outgrowth contains a single tube or solenium,
and at a longer or shorter distance from the mother zooid a
daughter zooid is formed as a bud. This gives off new outgrowths,
and these, branching and anastomosing with one another, may form
a network, adhering to stones, corals, or other objects, from which

ANTHOZOA

youm

. st,

; colony of
Stolon ; p,

Fig.

A, Skeleton of a
Tubipora purpurea.
platform.

B, Diagrammatic longitudinal section
of a corallite, showing two platforms,
£,and simple and cup-shaped tabulae, /.
(After S. J. Hickson.)

zooids arise at intervals. In Clavularia and its allies each outgrowth
contains several solenia, and the outgrowths may take .the form of
flat expansions, composed of a number of solenial tubes felted
together to form a lamellar surface of attachment. Such outgrowths
are called stolons, and a stolon may be simple, i.e. contain only one
solenium, as in Cornularia, or may be complex and built up of many
solenia, as in Clavularia. Further complications arise when the
lower walls of the mother zooid become thickened and interpene-
trated with solenia, from which buds are developed, so that lobose,

tufted, or branched colonies
are formed. The chief orders
of the Synalcyonacea are
founded upon the different
architectural features of
colonies produced by differ-
ent modes of budding. We
recognize six orders — the
Stolonifera, Alcyon-
acea,pseudaxonia, axif-
era, Stelechotokea, and

COENOTHECALIA.

In the order Stolonifera
the zooids spring at intervals
from branching or lamellar
stolons, and are usually free
from one another, except at
their bases, but in some t ases
horizontal solenia arising
at various heights from
the body-wall may place
the more distal portions
of the zooids in commu-
nication with one another.
In the genus Tubipora these
horizontal solenia unite to'
form a series of horizontal
platforms (fig. 5). The order
comprises the families Cor-
nulariidae, Syringoporidae,
Tubiporidae, and Favosi-
tidae. In the first-named
the zooids are united only by
their bases and the skeleton
consists of loose spicules. In the Tubiporidae the spicules of the
proximal part of the body-wall are fused together to form a firm
tube, the corallite, into which the distal part of the zooid can be
retracted. The corallites are connected at intervals by horizontal
platforms containing solenia, and at the level of each platform the
cavity of the corallite is divided by a transverse calcareous partition,
either flat or cup-shaped, called a tabula. Formerly all corals in
which tabulae are present were classed together as Tabulata, but
Tubipora is an undoubted Alcyonarian with a lamellar stolon, and
the structure of the fossil genus Syringopora, which has vertical
corallites united by horizontal solenia, clearly shows its affinity to

_,. Tubipora. The Favosi-
;)t^"i tidae, a fossil family from
the Silurian and Devonian,
have a massive corallum
composed of numerous
polygonal corallites closely
packed together. The
cavities of adjacent coral-
lites communicate by
means of numerous per-
forations, which appear to
represent solenia, and
numerous transverse tab-
ulae are also present. In
Favosites hemisphaerica a
number of radial spines,
projecting into the cavity
Fig. 6.— Portion of a colony of Coral- of the corallite, give it the
Hum rubrum, showing expanded and appearance of a madrepor-
contracted zooids. In the lower part of arian coral,
the figure the cortex has been cut away I n th ^ order Alcyon-
to show the axis, ax, and the longi- ACEA tne colony consists
tudinal canals, Ic, surrounding it. of . bunches of elongate

cylindrical zooids, whose
proximal portions are united by solenia and compacted, by fusion
of their own walls and those of the solenia, into a fleshy mass
called the coenenchyma. Thus the coenenchyma forms a stem,
sometimes branched, from the surface of which the free portions of
the zooids project. The skeleton of the Alcyonacea consists of
separate calcareous spicules, which are often, especially in the
Nephthyidae, so abundant and so closely interlocked as to form a
tolerably firm and hard armour. The order comprises the families
Xeniidae, Alcyonidae and Nephthyidae. Alcyonium digitatum, a pink
digitate form popularly known as " dead men's fingers," is common
in 10-20 fathoms of water off the English coasts.

In the order Pseudaxoma the colonies are upright and branched,

consisting of a number of short zooids whose proximal ends are im-
bedded in a coenenchyma containing numerous ramifying solenia
and spicules. The coenenchyma is further differentiated into a
medullary portion and a cortex. The latter contains the proximal
moieties of the zooids and numerous but separate spicules. The
medullary portion is densely crowded with spicules of different
shape from those in the
cortex, and in some forms
the spicules are cemented
together to form a hard
supporting axis. There are
four families of Pseud-
axonia — the Briareidae,
Sclerogorgidae, Melitodidae,
and Corallidae. In the
first-named the medulla is
penetrated by solenia and
forms an indistinct axis;
in the remainder the me-
dulla is devoid of solenia,
and in the Melitodidae and
Corallidae it forms a dense
axis, which in the Melito-
didae consists of alternate
calcareous andhornyjoints.
The precious red coral of
commerce, Corallium rub-
rum (fig. 6), a member of
the family Corallidae, is
found at depths varying
from 15 to 120 fathoms in

Fig. 7.-

The sea-fan (Gorgonia
cavolinii) .
the Mediterranean Sea, chiefly on the African coast. It owes its
commercial value to the beauty of its hard red calcareous axis which
in life is covered by a cortex in which the proximal moieties of the
zooids are imbedded. Corallium rubrum has been the subject of a
beautifully-illustrated memoir by de Lacaze-Duthiers, which should
be consulted for details of anatomy.

The Axifera comprise those corals that have a horny or calcified
axis, which in position corre-
sponds to the axis of the
Pseudaxonia, but, unlike it,
is never formed of fused
spicules; the most familiar
example is the pink sea-fan,
Gorgonia cavolinii, which is
found in abundance in 10-25
fathoms of water off the
English coasts . (fig. 7). In
this order the axis is formed
as an ingrowth of the ecto-
derm of the base of the
mother zooid of the colony,
the cavity of the ingrowth
being filled by a horny sub-
stance secreted by the ecto-
derm. In Gorgonia the axis
remains horny throughout
life, but in many forms it is
further strengthened by a
deposit of calcareous matter.
In the family Isidinae the
axis consists of alternate
segments of horny and cal-
careous substance, the latter
being amorphous. The
order contains six families —
the Dasygorgidae, Isidae,
Primnoidae, Muriceidae,
Plexauridae, and Gorgonidae.
In the order Stelecho-
tokea the colony consists of
a stem formed by a greatly-
elongated mother zooid, and
the daughter zooids are
borne as lateral buds on the
stem. In the section
A siphonacea the colonies are
upright and branched,
springing from membranous
or ramifying stolons. They
resemble and are closely
allied to certain families of
the Cornulariidae, differing
from them only in mode of
budding and in the disposi-
tion of the daughter zooids
round a central, much-elongated mother zooid. The section contains
two families, the Telestidae and the Coelogorgidae. The second section
comprises the Pennalulacea or sea-pens, which are remarkable from
the fact that the colony is not fixed by the base to a rock or other

Fig. 8.

A, Colony olPennatulaphospkorea
from the metarachidial aspect, p, The
peduncle.

B, Section of the rachis bearing a
single pinna, a, Axis; b, metarachi-
dial; c, prorachidial ; d, pararachidial
stem canals.

IOO

ANTHOZOA

object, but is imbedded in sand or mud by the proximal portion of
the stem known as the peduncle. In the typical genus, Pennatula
(fig. 8), the colony looks like a feather having a stem divisible into
an upper moiety or rachis, bearing lateral central leaflets (pinnae),
and a lower peduncle, which is sterile and imbedded in sand or mud.
The stem represents a greatly enlarged and elongated mother zooid.
It is divided longitudinally by a partition separating a so-called
" ventral " or prorachidial canal from a so-called " dorsal " or
metarachidial canal. A rod-like supporting axis of peculiar texture
is developed in the longitudinal partition, and a longitudinal canal
is hollowed out on either side of the axis in the substance of the
longitudinal partition, so that there are four stem-canals in all.
The prorachidial and metarachidial aspects of the rachis are sterile,
but the sides or pararachides bear numerous daughter zooids of
two kinds— (i) fully-formed autozooids, (2) small stunted siphono-
zooids. The pinnae are formed by the elongated autozooids, whose
proximal portions are fused together to form a leaf-like expansion,
from the upper edge of which the distal extremities of the zooids

Croject. The siphonozooids are very numerous and lie between the
ases -al the pinnae on the pararachides; they extend also on the
prorachidial and metarachidial surfaces. The calcareous skeleton
of the Pennatulacea consists of scattered spicules, but in one species,
Protocaulon molle, spicules are absent. Although of great interest
the Pennatulacea do not form an enduring skeleton or "coral,"
and need not be considered in detail in this place.

The order Coenothecalia is represented by a single living species,
Heliopora coerulea, which differs from all recent Alcyonana in the
fact that its skeleton is not composed of spicules, but is formed as
a secretion from a layer of cells called calicoblasts, which originate
from the ectoderm. The corallum of Heliopora is of a blue colour,
and has the form of broad, upright, lobed, or digitate masses flattened
from side to side. The surfaces are pitted all over with perforations
of two kinds, viz. larger star-shaped cavities, called calices, in
which the zooids are lodged, and very numerous smaller round or
polygonal apertures, which in life contain as many short unbranched

A Fig. 9. B

A, Portion of the surface of a colony of Heliopora coerulea magni-
fied, showing two calices and the surrounding coenenchymal tubes.

B, Single zooid with the adjacent soft tissues as seen after removal
of the skeleton by decalcification. Z 1 , the distal, and Z 2 , the proximal
or intracalicular portion of the zooid; ec, ectoderm; ct, coenen-
chymal tubes; sp, superficial network of solenia.

tubes, known as the coenenchymal tubes (fig. 9, A). The walls of the
calices and coenenchymal tubes are formed of flat plates of calcite,
which are so disposed that the walls of one tube enter into the com-
position of the walls of adjacent tubes, and the walls of the calices
are formed by the walls of adjacent coenenchymal tubes. Thus the
architecture of the Helioporid colony differs entirely from such forms
as Tubipora or Favosites, i.T which each corallite has its own distinct
and proper wall. The cavities both of the calices and coenenchymal
tubes of Heliopora are closed below by horizontal partitions or
tabulae, hence the genus was formerly included in the group Tabulata,
and was supposed to belong to the madreporarian corals, both
because of its lamellar skeleton, which resembles that of a Madrepore,
and because each calicle has from twelve to fifteen radial partitions
or septa projecting into its cavity. The structure of the zooid of
Heliopora, however, is that of a typical Alcyonarian, and the septa
have only a resemblance to, but no real homology with, the similarly
named structures in madreporarian corals. Heliopora coerulea is
found between tide-marks on the shore platforms of coral islands.
The order was more abundantly represented in Palaeozoic times by
the Heliolitidae from the Upper and Lower Silurian and the Devonian,
and by the Thecidae from the Wenlock limestone. In Heliolites
porosus the colonies had the form of spheroidal masses; the calices
were furnished with twelve pseudosepta, and the coenenchymal
tubes were more or less regularly hexagonal.

Zoantharia. — In this sub-class the arrangement of the mesenteries
is subject to a great deal of variation, but all the types hitherto
observed may be referred to a common pj an > illustrated by the
living genus Edwardsia (fig. 10, A, B). This is a small solitary
Zoantharian which lives embedded in sand. Its body is divisible
into three portions, an upper capitulum bearing the mouth and
tentacle*, a median scapus covered by a friable cuticle, and a terminal

physa which is rounded. Both capitulum and physa can be retracted
within the scapus. There are from sixteen to thirty- two simple
tentacles, but only eight mesenteries, all of which are complete.
The stomodaeum is compressed laterally, and is furnished with two
longitudinal grooves, a sulcus and a sulculus. The arrangement of
the muscle-banners on the mesenteries is characteristic. On six of
the mesenteries the muscle-banners have the same position as in
the Alcyonaria, namely, on the sulcar faces; but in the two remain-
ing mesenteries, namely, those which are attached on either side
of the sulcus, the muscle-banners are on the opposite or sulcular
faces. It is not known whether all the eight mesenteries of Ed-
wardsia are developed simultaneously or not, but in the youngest

Fig. 10.

A, Edwardsia claparedii (after A. Andres). Cap, capitulum; sc,
scapus; pli, physa.

B, Transverse section of the same, showing the arrangement of the
mesenteries, s, Sulcus; si, sulculus.

C, Transverse section of Halcampa. d, d, Directive mesenteries;
st, stomodaeum.

form which has been studied all the eight mesenteries were present,
but only two of them, namely the sulco-laterals, bore mesenterial
filaments, and so it is presumed that they are the first pair to be
developed. In the common sea-anemone, Actinia equina (which
has already been quoted as a type of Anthozoan structure), the
mesenteries are numerous and are arranged in cycles. The mesen-
teries of the first cycle are complete (i.e. are attached to the stomo-
daeum), are twelve in number, and arranged in couples, distinguish-
able by the position of the muscle-banners. In the four couples o'
mesenteries which are attached to the sides of the elongated stomo-
daeum the muscle-banners of each couple are turned towards one
another, but in the sulcar and sulcular couples, known as the directive

Fig. 11. — A, Diagram showing the sequence of mesenterial devel-
opment in an Actinian. B, Diagrammatic transverse section of
Gonactinia prolifera.

mesenteries, the muscle-banners are on the outer faces of the mesen-
teries, and so are turned away from one another (see fig. 10, C).
The space enclosed between two mesenteries of the same couple is
called an entocoele; the space enclosed between two mesenteries of
adjacent couples is called an exocoele. The second cycle of mesen-
teries consists of six couples, each formed in an exocoele of thb
primary cycle, and in each couple the muscle-banners are vis-a-vis
The third cycle comprises twelve couples, each formed in an exocoek
between the primary and secondary couples and so on, it being a
general rule (subject, however, to exceptions) that new mesenterial
couples are always formed in the exocoeles, and not in the entocoeles.
While the mesenterial couples belonging to the second and each
successive cycle are formed simultaneously, those of the first cycle

ANTHOZOA

101

are formed in successive pairs, each member of a pair being placed
on opposite sides of the stomodaeum. Hence the arrangement in
six couples is a secondary and not a primary feature. In most
Actinians the mesenteries appear in the following order: — At the
time when the stomodaeum is formed, a single pair of mesenteries,
marked I, I in the diagram (fig. 11, A), makes its appearance, dividing
the coelenteric cavity into a smaller sulcar and a large sulcular
chamber. The muscle-banners of this pair are placed on the sulcar
faces of the mesenteries. Next, a pair of mesenteries, marked 11,11
in the diagram, is developed in the sulcular chamber, its muscle-
banners facing the same way as those of I, I. The third pair is
formed in the sulcar chamber, in close connexion with the sulcus,
and in this case the muscle-banners are on the sulcular faces. The
fourth pair, having its muscle-banners on the sulcar faces, is devel-
oped at the opposite extremity of the stomodaeum in close connexion
with the sulculus. There are now eight mesenteries present, having
exactly the same arrangement as in Edwardsia. A pause in the
development follows, during which no new mesenteries are formed,
and then the six-rayed symmetry characteristic of a normal Actinian
zooid is completed by the formation of the mesenteries V, V in the
lateral chambers, and VI, VI in the sulcolateral chambers, their
muscle-banners being so disposed that they form couples respectively
with 11,11 and I, I. In Actinia equina the Edwardsia stage is arrived
at somewhat differently. The mesenteries second in order of forma-
tion form the sulcular directives, those fourth in order of formation
form with the fifth the sulculo-lateral couples of the adult.

As far as the anatomy of the zooid is concerned, the majority of
the stony or madreporarian corals agree exactly with the soft-bodied
Actinians, such as Actinia equina, both in the number and arrange-

FlG. 12.

A, Zoanthid colony, showing the expanded zooids.

B, Diagram showing the arrangement of mesenteries in a young
Zoanthid.

C, Diagram showing the arrangement of mesenteries in an adult
Zoanthid. I, 2, 3, 4, Edwardsian mesenteries.

ment of the adult mesenteries and in the order of development of
the first cycle. The few exceptions will be dealt with later, but it
may be stated here that even in these the first cycle of six couples
of mesenteries is always formed, and in all the cases which have
been examined the course of development described above is followed .
There are, however, several groups of Zoantharia in which the
mesenterial arrangement of the adult differs widely from that just
described. But it is possible to refer all these cases with more or
less certainty to the Edwardsian type.

The order Zoanthidea comprises a number of soft-bodied Zoan-
tharians generally encrusted with sand. Externally they resemble
ordinary sea-anemones, but there is only one ciliated groove, the
sulcus, in the stomodaeum, and the mesenteries are arranged on a
peculiar pattern. The first twelve mesenteries are disposed in
couples, and do not differ from those of Actinia except in size. The
mesenterial pairs I, II and III are attached to the stomodaeum,
and are called macromesenteries (fig. 12, B), but IV, V and VI are
much shorter, and are called micromesenteries. The subsequent
development is peculiar to the group. New mesenteries are formed
only in the sulco-lateral exocoeles. They are formed in couples,
each couple consisting of a macromesentery and a micromesentery,
disposed so that the former is nearest to the sulcar directives. The
derivation of the Zoanthidea from an Edwardsia form is sufficiently
obvious.

The order CERiANTHiDEAcomprisesa few soft-bodied Zoantharians
with rounded aboral extremities pierced by pores. They have two
circlets of tentacles, a labial and a marginal, and there is only one
ciliated groove in the stomodaeum, which appears to be the sulculus.
The mesenteries are numerous, and the longitudinal muscles, though
distinguishable, are so feebly developed that there are no muscle-
banners. The larval forms of the type genus Cerianthus float freely
in the sea, and were once considered to belong to a separate genus,
Aracknactis. In this larva four pairs of mesenteries having the
typical Edwardsian arrangement are developed, but the fifth and
sixth pairs, instead of forming couples with the first and second,
arise in the sulcar chamber, the fifth pair inside the fourth, and the

sixth pair inside the fifth. New mesenteries are continually added
in the sulcar chamber, the seventh pair within the sixth, the eighth
pair within the seventh, and so on (fig. 13). In the Cerian<hidea,
as in the Zoanthidea, much as the adult arrangement of mesenteries
differs from that of Actinia, the derivation from an Edwardsia stock
is obvious.

The order Antipathidea is a well-defined group whose affi dries

Fig.* 13

A, Cerianthus solitarius (after A. Andres). ' „S

B, Transverse section of the stoiti the sulculus, si,
and the arrangement of the mesenteries.

C, Oral aspect *>f Aracknactis brachiolata, the larva of Cerianthus,
with seven tentacles. ,

D, Transverse section, of an older larva. The numerals indicate
the order of .developioent of the mesenteries. , j;

are more obscure. The type farm, Antipathes dieketoiptt (fig. 14),
forms arborescent colonies consisting of numerous' zciDtft* arranged
in a single series alon Each

zooid has six tentacles; the stotnodaeum is elongate, btilt'^he sulcus
and sulculus are very feefcly represented. Therejai^ tfertlBtesenteries
in which the musculature $j so "tittte developed as tft^be almost
indistinguishable.- 1 uteJenteries art

Fig. 14.

A, Portion of a colony of Antipathes dichotoma.

B, Single zooid aftd axis of the same magnified, m, Mouth; m)r
mesenterial filament; a#, axis. .

C, Transverse section through the oral cone of Antipatkella minor
st, Stomodaeum; ov, ovary.

short, the sulco-lateral and sulculo-lateral pairs are a little longer,
but the two transverse are very large and are the only mesenteries
which bear gonads. As the development of the Antipathidea- is
unknown, it is impossible to say what is the sequence of the mesen-
terial development, but in Leiopathes glaberrima, a genus with twelve
mesenteries, there are distinct indications of an Edwardsia stage.

There are, in addition to these groups, several genera of Actinians
whose mesenterial arrangement differs from the normal type. Of

T02

ANTHOZOA

these perhaps the most interesting is Gonadinia prolifera (fig. n, B),
with eight macromesenteries arranged on the Edwardsian plan.
Two pairs of micromesenteries form couples with the first anl
second Edwardsian pairs, and in addition there is a couple of micro-
mesenteries in each of the sulculo-lateral exocoeles. Only the first
and second pairs of Edwardsian macromesenteries are fertile, i.e.
bear gonads.

The remaining forms, the Actiniidea, are divisible into the
Malacactiniae, or soft-bodied sea-anemones, which have already
been described sufficiently in the course of this article, and the
Scleractiniae ( = Madreporaria) or true corals.

All recent corals, as has already been said, conform so closely
to the anatomy of normal Actinlans that they cannot be classified
apart from them, except that they are distinguished by the
possession of a calcareous skeleton. This skeleton is largely
composed of a number of radiating plates or septa, and it differs
both in origin and structure from the calcareous skeleton of all
Alcyonaria except Heliopora. It is formed, not from fused
spicules, but as a secretion of a special layer of cells derived from
the basal ectoderm, and known as calicoblasts. The skeleton or
corallum of a typical solitary coral — the common Devonshire cup-
coral Caryophyllia smithii (fig. 15) is a good example — exhibits
the folio wings parts: — (1) The basal plate, between the zooid and
• he surface of attachment. (2) The septa, radial plates of

Fig. 15. — Corallum of Caryophyllia; semi-diagrammatic, th, Theca ;
c, costae; sp, septa; p, palus; col, columella.

calcite reaching from the periphery nearly or quite to the centre
of the coral-cup or calicle. (3) The theca or wall, which in many
corals is not an independent structure, but is formed by the con-
joined thickened peripheral ends of the septa. (4) The columella,
a structure which occupies the centre of the calicle, and may
arise from the basal plate, when it is called essential, or may be
formed by union of trabecular offsets of the septa, when it is called
unessential. (5) The costae, longitudinal ribs or rows of spines
on the outer surface of the theca. True costae always correspond
to the septa, and are in fact the peripheral edges of the latter.
(6) Epitheca, an offset of the basal plate which surrounds the
base of the theca in a ring-like manner, and in some corals may
take the place of a true theca. (7) Pali, spinous or blade-like
upgrowths from the bottom of the calicle, which project between
the inner edges of certain septa and the columella. In addition
to these parts the following structures may exist in corals: —
Dissepiments are oblique calcareous partitions, stretching from
septum to septum, and closing the interseptal chambers below.
The whole system of dissepiments in any given calicle is often
called endotheca. Synapticulae are calcareous bars uniting adjacent
septa. Tabulae are stout horizontal partitions traversing the
centre of the calicle and dividing it into as many superimposed
chambers. The septa in recent corals always bear a definite
relation to the mesenteries, being found either in every entocoele
or in every entocoele and exocoele. Hence in corals in which
there is only a single cycle of mesenteries the septa are corre-
spondingly few in number; where several cycles of mesenteries

are present the septa are correspondingly numerous. In some
cases — e.g. in some species of Madrepora — only two septa are
fully developed, the remainder being very feebly represented.

Though the corallum appears to live within the zooid, it is
morphologically external to it, as is best shown by its develop-
mental history. The larvae of corals are free swimming ciliated
forms known as planulae, and they do not acquire a corallum
until they fix themselves. A ring-shaped plate of calcite,
secreted by the ectoderm, is then formed, lying between the
embryo and the surface of attachment. As the mesenteries are

Fig. 16. — Tangential section of a larva of Astroides calicularis
which has fixed itself on a piece of cork, ec, Ectoderm; era, endo-
derm; mg, mesogloea; m, m, mesenteries; s, septum; b, basal plate
formed of ellipsoids of carbonate of lime secreted by the basal
ectoderm ; ep, epitheca. (After von Koch.)

formed, the endoderm of the basal disk lying above the basal
plate is raised up in the form of radiating folds. There may be
six of these folds, one in each entocoele of the primary cycle of
mesenteries; or there may be twelve, one in each exocoele and
entocoele. The ectoderm beneath each fold becomes detached
from the surface of the basal plate, and both it and the mesogloea
are folded conformably with the endoderm. The cells forming
the limbs of the ectodermic folds secrete nodules of calcite, and
these, fusing together, give rise to six (or twelve) vertical radial
plates or septa. As growth proceeds new septa are formed
simultaneously with the new couples of secondary mesenteries.
In some corals, in which all the septa are entocoelic, each new
system is embraced by a mesenteric couple; in others,in which the
septa are both entocoelic and exocoelic, three septa are formed in

Fig. 17. — Transverse section through a zooid of Cladocora. The
corallum shaded with dots, the mesogloea represented by a thick line.
Thirty-two septa are present, six in the entocoeles of the primary
cycle of mesenteries, I ; six in the entocoeles of the secondary cycle
of mesenteries, II; four in the entocoeles of the tertiary cycle of
mesenteries, III, only four pairs of the latter being developed; and
sixteen in the entocoeles between the mesenterial pairs. D, D,
Directive mesenteries; st, stomodaeum. (After Duerden.)

every chamber between two primary mesenterial couples, one in the
eiitocoele of the newly formed mesenterial couple of the secondary
cycle, and one in each exocoele between a primary and a secondary
couple. These latter are in turn embraced by the couples of the
tertiary cycle of mesenteries, and new septa are formed in the
exocoeles on either side of them, and so forth.

It is evident from an inspection of figs. 16 and 17 that every

ANTHOZOA

103

septum is covered by a fold of endoderm, mesogloea, and
ectoderm, and is in fact pushed into the cavity of the zooid from
without. The zooid then is, as it were, moulded upon the
corallum. When fully extended, the upper part of the zooid
projects for some distance out of the calicle, and its wall is
reflected for some distance over the lip of the latter, forming a
fold of soft tissue extending to a greater or less distance over the
theca, and containing in most cases a cavity continuous over the lip
of the calicle with the coelenteron. This fold of tissue is known as
the edge-zone. In some corals the septa aresolid imperforate plates of
calcite, and their peripheral ends are either firmly welded together,
or are united by interstitial pieces so as to form imperforate
theca. In others the peripheral ends of the septa are united only
by bars or trabeculae, so that the theca is perforate, and in many
such perforate corals the septa themselves are pierced by
numerous perforations. In the former, which have been called

Fig. 18.

A, Schematic longitudinal section through a zooid and bud of
Stylophora digitata. In A, B, and C the thick black lines represent
the soft tissues; the corallum is dotted, s, Stomodaeum; c, c,
coenosarc ; col, columella ; T, tabulae.

B, Similar section through a single zooid and bud of Astroides
calicularis.

C, Similar section through three corallites of Lophohelia prolifera.
ez, Edge-zone.

D Diagram illustrating the process of budding by unequal division.

E, Section through a dividing calicle of Mussa, showing the union
of two septa in the plane of division and the origin of new septa at
right angles to them.

(C original; the rest after von Koch.)

aporose corals, the only communication between the cavity of
the edge-zone and the general cavity of the zooid is by way of the
lip of the calicle; in the latter, or perforate corals, the theca is
permeated by numerous branching and anastomosing canals
lined by endoderm, which place the cavity of the edge-zone in
communication with the general cavity of the zooid.

A large number of corals, both aporose and perforate, are
colonial. The colonies are produced by either budding or divi-
sion. In the former case the young daughter zooid, with its
corallum, arises wholly outside the cavity of the parent zooid,
and the component parts of the young corallum, septa, theca,
columella, &c, are formed anew in every individual produced.
In division a vertical constriction divides a zooid into two equal
or unequal parts, and the several parts of the two corals thus
produced are severally derived from the corresponding parts of
the dividing corallum. In colonial corals a bud is always formed
from the edge-zone, and this bud develops into a new zooid
with its corallum. The cavity of the bud in an aporose coral
(fig. 18, A, C) does not communicate directly with that of the
parent form, but through the medium of the edge-zone. As
growth proceeds, and parent and bud become separated farther
from one another, the edge- zone forms a sheet of soft tissue,

bridging over the space between the two, and resting upon
projecting spines of the corallum. This sheet of tissue is called
the coenosarc. Its lower surface is clothed with a layer of
calicoblasts which continue to secrete carbonate of lime, giving
rise to a secondary deposit which more or less fills up the spaces
between the individual coralla, and is distinguished as coenen-
chyme. This coenenchyme may be scanty, or may be so abundant
that the individual corallites produced by budding seem to be
immersed in it. Budding takes place in an analogous manner
in perforate corals (fig. 18, B), but the presence of the canal
system in the perforate theca leads to a modification of the pro-
cess. Buds arise from the edge-zone which already communicate
with the cavity of the zooid by the canals. As the buds develop
the canal system becomes much extended, and calcaieous tissue
is deposited between the network of canals, the confluent edge-
zones of mother zooid and bud forming a coenosarc. As the
process continues a number of calicles are formed, imbedded in
a spongy tissue in which the canals ramify, and it is impossible
to say where the theca of one corallite ends and that of another
begins. In the formation of colonies by division a constriction
at right angles to the long axis of the mouth involves first the
mouth, then the peristome, and finally the calyx itself, so that
the previously single corallite becomes divided into two (fig. 18,
E). After division the corallites continue to grow upwards, and
their zooids may remain united by a bridge of soft tissue' or
coenosarc. But in some cases, as they grow farther apart, this
continuity is broken, each corallite has its own edge-zone, and
internal continuity is also broken by the formation of dissepi-
ments within each calicle, all organic connexion between the
two zooids being eventually lost. Massive meandrine corals are
produced by continual repetition of a process of incomplete
division, involving the mouth and to some extent the peristome:
the calyx, however, does not divide, but elongates to form a
characteristic meandrine channel containing several zooid mouths.
' Corals have been divided into Aporosa and Perforata, according
as the theca and septa are compact and solid, or are perforated
by pores containing canals lined by endoderm. The division
is in many respects convenient for descriptive purposes, but
recent researches show that it does not accurately represent the
relationships of the different families. Various attempts have
been made to classify corals according to the arrangement of the
septa, the characters of the theca, the microscopic structure of
the corallum, and the anatomy of the soft parts. The last-
named method has proved little more than that there is a remark-
able similarity between the zooids of all recent corals, the
differences which have been brought to light being for the most
part secondary and valueless for classificatory purposes. On the
other hand, the study of the anatomy and development of the
zooids has thrown much light upon the manner in which the
corallum is formed, and it is now possible to infer the structure
of the soft parts from a microscopical examination of the septa,
theca, &c, with the result that unexpected relationships have
been shown to exist between corals previously supposed to
stand far apart. This has been particularly the case with the
group of Palaeozoic corals formerly classed together as Rugosa.
In many of these so-called rugose forms the septa have a char-
acteristic arrangement, differing from that of recent corals
chiefly in the fact that they show a tetrameral instead of a
hexameral symmetry. Thus in the family Slauridae there are
four chief septa whose inner ends unite in the middle of the
calicle to form a false columella, and in the Zaphrentidae there
are many instances of an arrangement, such as that depicted
in fig. 19, which represents the septal arrangement of Streptelasma
corniculum from the lower Silurian. In this coral the calicle is
divided into quadrants by four principal septa, the main septum,
counter septum, and two alar septa. The remaining septa are so
disposed that in the quadrants abutting on the chief septum
they converge towards that septum, whilst in the other quadrants
they converge towards the alar septa. The secondary septa show
a regular gradation in size, and, assuming that the smallest were
the most recently formed, it will be noticed that in the chief
quadrants the youngest septa lie nearest to the main septum;

104

ANTHOZOA

Fig. 19. — Diagram of the arrange-
ment of the septa in a Zaphrentid coral,
m, Main septum; c, counter septum;
t, t, alar septa.

in the other quadrants the youngest septa lie nearest to the alar
septa. This arrangement, however, is by no means characteristic
even of the Zaphrentidae, and in the family Cyathophyllidae
most of the genera exhibit a radial symmetry in which no trace
of the bilateral arrangement described above is recognizable,
and indeed in the genus Cyathophylkim itself a radial arrangement
is the rule. The connexion between the Cyathophyllidae and
modern Astraeidae is shown by Moseleya latistellata, a living
reef-building coral from Torres Strait. The general structure
of this coral leaves no doubt that it is closely allied to the
Astraeidae, but in the young calicles a tetrameral symmetry
is indicated by the presence of four large septa placed at right
angles to one another. Again, in the family Amphiastraeidae
there is commonly a single septum much larger than the rest,
and it has been shown that in the young calicles, e.g. of Thecidio-
smilia, two septa, corresponding to the main- and counter-septa
jn of Streptelasma, are iirst

formed, then two alar
septa, ' and afterwards
the remaining septa,
the latter taking on a
generally radial arrange-
ment, though the original
bilaterality is marked
by the preponderance of
the main septum. As
the microscopic char-
acter of the corallum of
these extinct forms
agrees with that of re-
cent corals, it may be
assumed that the anat-
omy of the soft parts
also was similar, and
the tetrameral arrange-
ment, when present,
may obviously be referred to a stage when only the first two
pairs of Edwardsian mesenteries were present and septa were
formed in the intervals between them.

Space forbids a discussion of the proposals to classify corals
after the minute structure of their coralla, but it will suffice
to say that it has been shown that the septa of all corals are built
up of a number of curved bars called trabeculae, each of which
is composed of a number of nodes. In many secondary corals
(Cydolites, Thamnastraea) the trabeculae are so far separate
that the individual bars are easily recognizable, and each looks
something like a bamboo owing to the thickening of the two
ends of each node. The trabeculae are united together by these
thickened internodes, and the result is a fenestrated septum,
which in older septa may become solid and aporose by continual
deposit of calcite in the fenestrae. Each node of a trabecula
may be simple, i.e. have only one centre of calcification, or may
be compound. The septa of modern perforate corals are shown
to have a structure nearly identical with that of the secondary
forms, but the trabeculae and their nodes are only apparent on
microscopical examination. The aporose corals, too, have a
practically identical structure, their compactness being due to
the union of the trabeculae throughout their entire lengths in-
stead of at intervals, as in the Perforata. Further, the trabeculae
may be evenly spaced throughout the septum, or may be grouped
together, and this feature is probably of value in estimating the
affinities of corals. (For an account of coral formations see
Coral-reefs.)

In the present state of our knowledge the Zoantharia in which
a primary cycle of six couples of mesenteries is (or may be inferred
to be) completed by the addition of two pairs to the eight
Edwardsian mesenteries, and succeeding cycles are formed in
the exocoeles of the pre-existing mesenterial cycles, may be classed
in an order Actiniidea, and this may be divided into the sub-
orders Malacadiniae, comprising the soft-bodied Actinians,
such as Actinia, Sagartia, Bunodes, &c, and the Sder actiniae,
comprising the corals. The Scleractiniae may best be divided

into groups of families which appear to be most closely related
to one another, but it should not be forgotten that there is great
reason to believe that many if not most of the extinct corals
must have differed from modern Actiniidea in mesenterial
characters, and may have only possessed Edwardsian mesenteries,
or even have possessed only four mesenteries, in this respect
showing close affinities to the Stauromedusae. Moreover,
there are some modern corals in which the secondary cycle
of mesenteries departs from the Actinian plan. For example,
J. E. Duerden has shown that in Pontes the ordinary zooids
possess only six couples of mesenteries arranged on the Actinian
plan. But some'zooids grow to a larger size and develop a number
of additional mesenteries, .which arise either in the sulcar or
the sulcular entocoele, much in the same manner as in Cerianthus.
Bearing this in mind, the following arrangement may be taken
to represent the most recent knowledge of coral structure: —

Group A.

Family I. Zaphrentidae. — Solitary Palaeozoic corals with an
epithecal wall. Septa numerous, arranged pinnately with regard to
four principal septa. Tabulae present. One or more pits or fossulae
present in the calicle. Typical genera— Zaphrentis, Raf. Amplexus,
M. Edw. and H. Streptelasma, Hall. Omphyma, Raf.

Family 2. Turbinolidae. — Solitary, rarely colonial corals, with
radially arranged septa and without tabulae. Typical genera —
Flabellum, Lesson. Turbinolia, M. Edw. and H. Caryophyllia,
Lamarck. Sphenotrochus, Moseley, &c.

Family 3. Amphiastraeidae. — Mainly colonial, rarely solitary
corals, with radial septa, but bilateral arrangement' indicated by
persistence of a main septum. Typical genera — Amphiastraea,
Etallon. Thecidiosmilia.

Family a. Stylinidae. — Colonial corals allied to the Amphi-
astraeidae, but with radially symmetrical septa arranged in cycles.
Typical genera — Stylina, Lamarck (Jurassic). Convexaslraea, D' Orb.
(Jurassic). Isastraea, M. Edw. and H. (Jurassic). Ogilvie refers the
modern genus Galaxea to this family.

Group B.

Family 5. Ocui.inidae. — Branching or massive aporose corals,
the calices projecting above the level of a compact coenenchyme
formed from the coenosarc which covers the exterior of the corallum.
Typical genera— Lophohelia, M. Edw. and H. Oculiha, M. Edw.
and H.

Family 6. Pocilloporidae. — Colonial branching aporose corals,
with small calices sunk in the coenenchyme. Tabulae present, and
two larger septa, an axial and abaxial, are always present, with
traces of ten smaller septa. Typical genera — Pocillopora, Lamarck.
Seriatopora, Lamarck.

Family 7. Madreporidae. — Colonial branching or palmate
perforate corals, with abundant trabecular coenenchyme. Theca
porous; septa compact and reduced in number. Typical genera —
Madrepora, Linn. Turbinariq, Oken. Montipora, Quoy and G.

Family 8. Poritidae. — Incrusting or massive colonial perforate
corals; calices usually in contact by their edges, sometimes disjunct
and immersed in coenenchyme. Theca and septa perforate. Typical
genera — Porites, M. Edw. and H. Goniopora, Quoy and G. Rhoda-
raea, M. Edw. and H.

Group C.

Family 9. Cyathophyllidae. — Solitary and colonial aporose
corals. Tabulae and vesicular endotheca present. Septa numerous,
generally radial, seldom pinnate. Typical genera— Cyathophyllum,
Goldfuss (Devonian and Carboniferous). Moseleya, Quelch (recent).

Family 10. Astraeidae.— Aporose, mainly colonial corals,
massive, branching, or maeandroid. Septa radial; dissepiments
present ; an epitheca surrounds the base of massive or maeandroid
forms, but only surrounds individual corallites in simple or branching
forms. Typical genera— Goniastraea, M. Edw. and H. Heliastraea,
M. Edw. and H. Maeandrina, Lam. Coeloria, M. Edw. and H.
Favia, Oken.

Family u. Fungidae. — Solitary and colonial corals, with
numerous radial septa united by synapticulae. Typical genera —
Lophoseris, M. Edw. and H. Thamnastraea, Le Sauvage. Lepto-
phyllia, Reuss (Jurassic and Cretaceous). Futtgia, Dana. Sider-
astraea, Blainv.

Group D.

Family 12. EuPSAMMiDAE.-^Solitary or colonial perforate corals,
branching, massive, or encrusting. Septa radial ; the primary septa
usually compact, the remainder perforate. Theca perforate. Synap-
ticula present in some genera. Typical genera — Stephanophyllia,
Michelin. Eupsammia, M. Edw. and H. Astroides, Blainv. Rhodop-
sammia, M. Edw. and H. Dendrophyllia, M. Edw. and H.

Group E.

Family 13. Cystiphyllidae. — Solitary corals with rudimentary
septa, and the calicle filled with vesicular endotheca. Genera—

ANTHRACENES-ANTHRACITE

105

Cystiphyllum,' Lonsdale (Silurian and Devonian). Goniophyllum,
M. Edw. and H. (In this Silurian genus the calyx is provided with a
movable operculum, consisting of four paired triangular pieces, the
bases of each' being attached to the sides of the calyx, and their apices
meeting in the middle when the operculum is closed). Calcecla,
Lam. (In this Devonian genus there is a single semicircular oper-
culum furnished with a stout median septum and numerous feebly
developed secondary septa. The calyx is triangular in section,
pointed below, and the operculum is attached to it by hinge-like
teeth.)

Authorities. — The following list contains only the names of the
more important and more general works on the structure and
classification of corals and on coral reefs. For a fuller bibliography
the works marked with an asterisk should be consulted : * A. Andres,
Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel, ix. (1884) ; H. M. Bernard,
" Catalogue of Madreporarian Corals " in Brit. Museum, ii. (1896),
iii. (1897) ; *G. C. Bourne, " Anthozoa," in E. Ray Lankester's
Treatise on Zoology, vol. ii. (London, 1900); G. Brook, "Chal-
lenger Reports," Zoology, xxxii. (1899) (Antipatharia); "Cat.
Madrep. Corals," Brit. Museum, i. (1893); D.C.Danielssen, "Report
Norwegian North Atlantic Exploring Expedition," Zoology, xix.
(1890); J. E. Duerden, "Some Results on the Morphology and
Development of Recent and Fossil Corals," Rep. Brit. Association,
1903* pp. 684-685; " The Morphology of the Madreporaria," Biol.
Bullet, vii. pp. 79-104; P. M. Duncan, Journ. Linnean Soc. xviii.
(1885); P. H. Gosse, Actinologia britannica (London, i860); O. and
R. Hertwig, Die Actinien (Jena, 1 879); R. Hertwig, " Challenger
Reports," Zoology, vi. (1882) and xxvi. (1888); * C. B. Klunzinger,
Die Korallthiere des Rothen Meeres (Berlin, 1877); * G. von Koch,
Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel, xv. (1887) ; Mitth. Zool.
Stat. Neapel, ii. (1882) and xii. (1897); Palaeontographica, xxix.
(1883); (also many papers in the Morphol. Jahrbuch from 1878 to
1898); F. Koby, " Polypiers jurassiques de la Suisse," Mem. Soc.
Palaeont. Suisse, vii.-xvi. (1880-1889); A. von Kolliker, "Die
Pennatuliden," Abh. d. Senck. Naturf. Gesell. vii.; *" Challenger
Reports," Zoology, i. Pennatulidae (1880); Koren and Danielssen,
Norske Nordhaus Exped., Alcyonida (1887) ; H. de Lacaze-Duthiers,
Hist. not. du corail (Paris, 1864) ; H. Milne-Edwards and J. Haime,
Hist. nat. des coralliaires (Paris, 1857); H. N. Moseley, " Challenger
Reports," Zoology, ii. (1881); H. A. Nicholson, -Palaeozoic Tabulate
Corals (Edinburgh, 1879) ; M.M. Ogilvie, Phil. Transactions, clxxxvii.
(1896); E. Pratz, Palaeontographica, xxix. (1882); J. J. Quelch,
" Challenger Reports," Zoology, xvi. (1886); * P. S. Wright and Th.
Studer, " Challenger Reports," Zoology, xxxi. (1889). (G. C. B.)

ANTHRACENE (from the Greek a.vdpa£, coal), Ci 4 H l0 , a
hydrocarbon obtained from the fraction of the coal-tar distillate
boiling between 270 and 400 C. This high boiling fraction is
allowed to stand for some days, when it partially solidifies. It is
then separated in a centrifugal machine, the low melting-point
impurities are removed by means of hot water, and the residue
is finally hot-pressed. The crude anthracene cake is purified
by treatment with the higher pyridine bases, the operation being
carried out in large steam-jacketed boilers. The whole mass
dissolves on heating, and the anthracene crystallizes out on
cooling. The crystallized anthracene is then removed by a
centrifugal separator and the process of solution in the pyridine
bases is repeated. Finally the anthracene is purified by sub-
limation.

Many synthetical processes for the preparation of anthracene
and its derivatives are known. It is formed by the condensation
of acetylene tetrabromide with benzene in the presence of
aluminium chloride: — ■

Br-CH-Br /CH X

C.H 6 + I +C 6 H6=4HBr+C 6 H 4 < I >C 6 H 4 ,

Br-CH-Br X CH/

and similarly from methylene dibromide and benzene, and also
when benzyl chloride is heated with aluminium chloride to
200 C. By condensing ortho-brombenzyl bromide with sodium,
C. L. Jackson and J. F. White (Ber., 1879, 12, p. 1965) obtained
dihydro-anthr'acene

C 6 H 4 <^ 2Br +4Na + BrC ^>C,H < = 4NaBr+C 6 H 4 <^pC 6 H4.

Anthracene has also been obtained by heating ortho-tolylphenyl
ketone with zinc dust

/CPU * X CH,

C 6 H,< = H,0+C 6 H 4 < I >C 6 H 4 .

MTOCsHi YH/

Anthracene crystallizes in colourless monoclinic tables which
show a fine blue fluorescence. It melts at 213 C. and boils
at 351° C. It is insoluble in water, sparingly soluble in alcohol
and ether, but readily soluble in hot benzene. It unites with

picric acid to form a picrate, ChHio'CjHj (N0 2 )3-OH, which
crystallizes in needles, melting at 138 C. On exposure to
sunlight a solution of anthracene in benzene or xylene
deposits para-anthracene (CuHio^, which melts at 244 C.
and passes back into the ordinary form. Chlorine, and
bromine form both addition and substitution products with
anthracene; the addition product, anthracene dichloride,
C14H10CI2, being formed when chlorine is passed into a cold
solution of anthracene in carbon bisulphide. On treatment
with potash, it forms the substitution product, monochlor-
anthracene, G4H9CI. Nitro-anthracenes are not as yet
known. The mono-oxyanthracenes (anthrols), C14H9OH or

/ CH \
CsHVC I )C6H 3 OH (a) and (/3), resemble the phenols, whilst

XXOHk

C«Hj<f ] /CeH (7) (anthranol) is a reduction product of

anthraquinone. /3-anthrol and anthranol give the corresponding
amino compounds (anthramines) when heated with ammonia.

Numerous sulphonic acids of anthracene are known, a mono-
sulphonic acid being obtained with dilute sulphuric acid, whilst
concentrated sulphuric acid produces mixtures of the anthracene
disulphonic acids. By the action of sodium amalgam on an
alcoholic solution of anthracene, an anthracene dihydride,
C14H12, is obtained, whilst by the use of stronger reducing agents,
such as hydriodic acid and amorphous phosphorus, hydrides
of composition G4H16 and C14H24 are produced.

Methyl and phenyl anthracenes are known; phenyl anthranol
(phthalidin) being somewhat closely related to the phenol-
phthaleins (q.v.). Oxidizing agents convert anthracene into
anthraquinone (q.v.) ; the production of this substance by oxidiz-
ing anthracene in glacial acetic acid solution, with chromic acid,
is the usual method employed for the estimation of anthracene.

ANTHRACITE (Gr. avdpa£, coal), a term applied to those
varieties of coal which do not give off tarry or other hydrocarbon
vapours when heated below their point of ignition; or, in other
words, which burn with a smokeless and nearly non-luminous
flame. Other terms having the same meaning are, " stone coal "
(not to be confounded with the German Steinkohle) or " blind
coal " in Scotland, and " Kilkenny coal " in Ireland. The im-
perfect anthracite of north Devon, which however is only used
as a pigment, is known as culm, the' same term being used in
geological classification to distinguish the strata in which it is
found; and similar strata in the Rhenish hill countries which are
known as the Culm Measures. In America, culm is used as an
equivalent for waste or slack in anthracite mining.

Physically, anthracite differs from ordinary bituminous coal by
its greater hardness, higher density, 1-3-1-4, and lustre, the latter
being often semi-metallic with a somewhat brownish reflection.
It is also free from included soft or fibrous notches and does
not soil the fingers when rubbed. Structurally it shows some
alteration by the development of secondary divisional planes and
fissures so that the original stratification lines are not always
easily seen. The thermal conductivity is also higher, a lump of
anthracite feeling perceptibly colder when held in the warm
hand than a similar lump of bituminous coal at the same tempera-
ture. The chemical composition of some typical anthracites is
given in the article Coal.

Anthracite may be considered to be a transition stage between
ordinary bituminous coal and graphite, produced by the more or
less complete elimination of the volatile constituents of the
former; and it is found most abundantly in areas that have been
subjected to considerable earth-movements, such as the flanks
of great mountain ranges. The largest and most important
anthracite region, that of the north-eastern portion of the Penn-
sylvania coal-field, is a good example of this; the highly con
torted strata of the Appalachian region produce anthracite
exclusively, while in the western portion of the same basin on
the Ohio and its tributaries, where the strata are undisturbed,
free-burning and coking coals, rich in volatile matter, prevail. In
the same way the anthracite region of South Wales is confined
to the contorted portion west of Swansea and Llanelly, the

io6

ANTHRACOTHERIUM— ANTHRAX

central and eastern portions producing steam, coking and
house coals.

Anthracites of newer, tertiary or cretaceous age, are found in
the Crow's Nest part of the Rocky Mountains in Canada, and
at various points in the Andes in Peru.

The principal use of anthracite is as a smokeless fuel. In the
eastern United States, it is largely employed as domestic fuel,
usually in close stoves or furnaces, as well as for steam purposes,
since, unlike that from South Wales, it does not decrepitate when
heated, or at least not to the same extent. For proper use, however,
it is necessary that the fuel should be supplied in pieces as nearly
uniform in size as possible, a condition that has led to the develop-
ment of the breaker which is so characteristic a feature in American
anthracite mining (see Coal). The large coal as raised from the
mine is passed through breakers with toothed rolls to reduce the
lumps to smaller pieces, which are separated into different sizes
by a system of graduated sieves, placed in descending order.
Each size can be perfectly well burnt alone on an appropriate
grate, if kept free from larger or smaller admixtures. The
common American classification is as follows:—

Lump, steamboat, egg and stove coals, the latter in two or three
sizes, all three being above i^ in. size on round-hole screens.

Chestnut below I J inch above |. inch.
rt -a ,, H ,, ,, j fi ,,

Buckwheat ,, f e ,, „ I ,,

Rice ,, I „ ,, ,»„ ,,

Barley „ A „ „ l> „

From the pea size downwards the principal use is for steam
purposes. In South Wales a less elaborate classification is
adopted; but great care is exercised in hand-picking and cleaning
the coal from included particles of pyrites in the higher qualities
known as best malting coals, which are used for kiln-drying
malt and hops.

Formerly, anthracite was largely used, both in America and
South Wales, as blast-furnace fuel for iron smelting, but for this
purpose it has been largely superseded by coke in the former
country and entirely in the latter. An important application
has, however, been developed in the extended use of internal
combustion motors driven by the so-called "mixed," "poor,"
" semi-water " or " Dowson gas " produced by the gasification
of anthracite with air and a small proportion of steam. This
is probably the most economical method of obtaining power
known; with an engine as small as 15 horse-power the expendi-
ture of fuel is at the rate of only 1 lb per horse-power hour, and
with larger engines it is proportionately less. Large quantities of
anthracite for power purposes are now exported from South
Wales to France, Switzerland and parts of Germany. (H. B.)

ANTHRACOTHERIUM (" coal-animal," so called from the
fact of the remains first described having been obtained from
the Tertiary lignite-beds of Europe), a genus of extinct artio-
dactyle ungulate mammals, characterized by having 44 teeth,
with five semi-crescentic cusps on the crowns of the upper
molars. In many respects, especially the form of the lower jaw,
Anlhracotherium, which is of Oligocene and Miocene age in
Europe, and typifies the family Anlhracotheriidae, is allied to the
hippopotamus, of which it is probably an ancestral form. The
European A. magnum was as large as the last-mentioned animal,
but there were several smaller species and the genus also occurs
in Egypt, India and North America. (See Artiodactyla.)

ANTHRAQUINONE, Ci 4 H 8 0._., an important derivative of
anthracene, first prepared in 1834 by A. Laurent. It is prepared
commercially from anthracene by stirring a sludge of anthracene
and water in horizontal cylinders with a mixture of sodium
bichromate and caustic soda. This suspension is then run through
a conical mill in order to remove all grit, the cones of the mill
fitting so tightly that water cannot pass through unless the mill is
running; the speed of the mill when working is about 3000
revolutions per minute. After this treatment, the mixture is
run into lead-lined vats and treated with sulphuric acid, steam
is blown through the mixture in order to bring it to the boil, and
the anthracene is rapidly oxidized to anthraquinone. When the
oxidation is complete, the anthraquinone is separated in a filter

press, washed and heated to 120 C. with commercial oil of
vitriol, using about 2§ parts of vitriol to 1 of anthraquinone.
It is then removed to lead-lined tanks and again washed with
water and dried; the product obtained contains about 95 % of
anthraquinone. It may be purified by sublimation. Various
synthetic processes have been used for the preparation of anthra-
quinone. A. Behr and W. A. v. Dorp (Ber., 1874,7^.578) obtained
orthobenzoyl benzoic acid by heating phthalic anhydride with
benzene in the presence of aluminium chloride. This compound
on heating with phosphoric anhydride loses water and yields
anthraquinone,

r „ /CO-^ C.H. ^CO-C 6 H 5 x „ „ ^-CCK. r „

C6H <CO> ^ CeH4< COOH ^C 6 H 4 < C0 >CeH 4 .

It may be prepared in a similar manner by heating phthalyl
chloride with benzene in the presence of aluminium chloride.
Dioxy- and tetraoxy-anthraquinones areobtained when meta-oxy-
and dimeta-dioxy-benzoic acids are heated with concentrated
sulphuric acid.

Anthraquinone crystallizes in yellow needles or prisms, which
melt at 277° C. It is soluble in hot benzene, sublimes easily, and
is very stable towards oxidizing agents. On the other hand,
it is readily attacked by reducing agents. With zinc dust in
presence of caustic soda it yields the secondary alcohol oxan-
thranol, C6H 4 : CO-CHOH : C 6 H 4 , with tin and hydrochloric acid,
the phenolic compound anthranol, C6H 4 : CO-C(OH): C 6 Hi; and
with hydriodic acid at 1 50 C. or on distillation with zinc dust,
the hydrocarbon anthracene, Ci 4 Hi . When fused with caustic
potash, it gives benzoic acid. It behaves more as a ketone than
as a quinone, since with hydroxylamine it yields an oxime, and on
reduction with zinc dust and caustic soda it yields a secondary
alcohol, whilst it cannot be reduced by means of sulphurous
acid. Various sulphonic acids of anthraquinone are known, as
well as oxy-derivatives, for the preparation and properties of
which see Alizarin.

ANTHRAX (the Greek for "coal," or " carbuncle," so called
by the ancients because they regarded it as burning like coal;
cf. the French equivalent charbon; also known as fievre char-
bonneuse, Milzbrand, splenic fever, and malignant pustule), an
acute, specific, infectious, virulent disease, caused by the Bacillus
anthracis, in animals, chiefly cattle, sheep and horses, and
frequently occurring in workers in the wool or hair, as well as in
those handling the hides or carcases, of beasts which have been
affected.

Animals. — As affecting wild as well as domesticated animals
and man, anthrax has been widely diffused in one or more of its
forms, over the surface of the globe. It at times decimates the
reindeer herds in Lapland and the Polar regions, and is only too
well known in the tropics and in temperate latitudes. It has
been observed and described in Russia, Siberia, Central Asia,
China, Cochin-China, Egypt, West Indies, Peru, Paraguay,
Brazil, Mexico, and other parts of North and South America, in
Australia, and on different parts of the African continent, while
for other European countries the writings which have been
published with regard to its nature, its peculiar characteristics,
and the injury it inflicts are innumerable. Countries in which
are extensive marshes, or the subsoil of which is tenacious or
impermeable, are usually those most frequently and seriously
visited. Thus there have been regions notorious for its preval-
ence, such as the marshes of Sologne, Dombes and Bresse in
France; certain parts of Germany, Hungary and Poland; in
Spain the half-submerged valleys and the maritime coasts of
Catalonia, as well as the Romagna and other marshy districts of
Italy; while it is epizootic, and even panzootic, in the swampy
regions of Esthonia, Livonia, Courland, and especially of Siberia,
where it is known as the Sibirskaja jaswa (Siberian boil -plague).
The records of anthrax ^o back to a very ancient date. It is
supposed to be the murrain of Exodus. Classical writers allude
to anthrax as if it were the only cattle disease worthy cf
mention (see Virgil, Georg. iii.). It figures largely in the history
of the early and middle ages as a devastating pestilence attack-
ing animals, and through them mankind; the oldest Anglo-
Saxon manuscripts contain many fantastic recipes, leechdoms.

ANTHRAX

107

charms and incantations for the prevention or cure of the
" blacan blezene " (black blain) and the relief of the " elfshot "
creatures. In the 18th and 19th centuries it sometimes spread
like an epizootic over the whole of Europe, from Siberia to
France. It was in this malady that disease-producing germs
{bacterid) were first discovered, in 1840, by Pollender of Wipper-
fiirth, and, independently, by veterinary surgeon Brauell of
Dorpat, and their real character afterwards verified by C. J.
Davaine (181 2-1882) of Alfort in 1863; and it was in their
experiments with this disease that Toussaint, Pasteur and
J. B. Chauveau first showed how to make the morbific poison its
own antidote. (See Vivisection.)

The symptoms vary with the species of animal, the mode of
infection, and the seat of the primary lesion, internal or external.
In all its forms anthrax is an inoculable disease, transmission
being surely and promptly effected by this means, and it may be
conveyed to nearly all animals by inoculation of a wound of the
skin or through the digestive organs. Cattle, sheep and horses
nearly always owe their infection to spores or bacilli ingested
with their food or water, and pigs usually contract the disease by
eating the flesh of animals dead of anthrax.

Internal anthrax, of cattle and sheep, exhibits no premonitory
symptoms that can be relied on. Generally the first indication
of an outbreak is the sudden death of one or more of the herd or
flock. Animals which do not die at once may be noticed to
stagger and tremble; the breathing becomes hurried and the
pulse very rapid, while the heart beats violently; the internal
temperature of the body is high, 104 to 106° F. ; blood oozes
from the nose, mouth and anus, the visible mucous membranes
are dusky or almost black. The animal becomes weak and list-
less, the temperature falls and death supervenes in a few hours,
being immediately preceded by delirium, convulsions or coma.
While death is usually rapid or sudden when the malady is
general, constituting what is designated splenic apoplexy,
internal anthrax in cattle is not invariably fatal. In some cases
the animal rallies from a first attack and gradually recovers.

In the external or localized form, marked by the formation
of carbuncles before general infection takes place, death may
not occur for several days. The carbuncles may appear in any
part of the body, being preceded or accompanied by fever.
They are developed in the subcutaneous connective tissue
where this is loose and plentiful, in the interstices of the muscles,
lymphatic glands, in the mucous membranes of the mouth and
tongue (glossanthrax of cattle), pharynx and larynx (anthrax
angina of horses and pigs), and the rectum. They begin as
small circumscribed swellings which are warm, slightly painful
and oedematous. In from two to eight hours they attain a con-
siderable size, are cold, painless and gangrenous, and when
they are incised a quantity of a blood-stained gelatinous exudate
escapes. When the swellings have attained certain proportions
symptoms of general infection appear, and, running their course
with great rapidity, cause death in a few hours. Anthrax of the
horse usually begins as an affection of the throat or bowel. In
the former there is rapid obstructive oedema of the mucous
membrane of the pharynx and larynx with swelling of the throat
and neck, fever, salivation, difficulty in swallowing, noisy
breathing, frothy discharge from the nose and threatening
suffocation. General invasion soon ensues, and the horse may
die in from four to sixteen hours. The intestinal form is marked
by high temperature, great prostration, small thready pulse,
tumultuous action of the heart, laboured breathing and symptoms
of abdominal pain with straining and diarrhoea. When moved
the horse staggers and trembles. Profuse sweating, a falling
temperature and cyanotic mucous membranes indicate the
approach of a fatal termination.

In splenic fever or splenic apoplexy, the most marked altera-
tions observed after death are — the effects of rapid decomposi-
tion, evidenced by the foul odour, disengagement of gas beneath
the skin and in the tissues and cavities of the body, yellow or
yellowish-red gelatinous exudation into and between the muscles,
effusion of citron or rust-coloured fluid in various cavities,
extravasations of blood and local congestions throughout the

body, the blood in the vessels generally being very dark and
tar-like. The most notable feature, however, in the majority of
cases is the enormous enlargement of the spleen, which is en-
gorged with blood to such an extent that it often ruptures, while
its tissue is changed into a violet or black fluid mass.

The bacillus of anthrax, under certain conditions, retains its
vitality for a long time, and rapidly grows when it finds a suitable
field in which to develop, its mode of multiplication being by
scission and the formation of spores, and depending, to a great
extent at least, on the presence of oxygen. The morbid action
of the bacillus is indeed said to be due to its affinity for oxygen;
by depriving the red corpuscles of the blood of that most essential
gas, it renders the vital fluid unfit to sustain life. Albert Hoffa
and others assert that the fatal lesiqns are produced by the
poisonous action of the toxins formed by the bacilli and not by
the blocking up of the minute blood-vessels, or the abstraction
of oxygen from the blood by the bacilli.

It was by the cultivation of this micro-organism, or attenuation
of the virus, that Pasteur was enabled to produce a' prophylactic
remedy for anthrax. His discovery was first made with regard
to the cholera of fowls, a most destructive disorder which
annually carries off great numbers of poultry. Pasteur produced
his inoculation material by the cultivation of the bacilli at a
temperature of 42 C. in oxygen. Two vaccines are required.
The first or weak vaccine is obtained by incubating a bouillon
culture for twenty-four days at 42° C, and the second or less
attenuated vaccine by incubating a bouillon culture, at the same
temperature, for twelve days. Pasteur's method of protective
inoculation comprises two inoculations with an interval of twelve
days between them. Immunity, established in about fifteen
days after the injection of the second vaccine, lasts from nine
months to a year.

Toussaint had, previous to Pasteur, attenuated the virus of
anthrax by the action of heat; and Chauveau subsequently
corroborated by numerous experiments the value of Toussaint's
method, demonstrating that, according to the degree of heat
to which the virus is subjected, so is its inocuousness when
transferred to a healthy creature. In outbreaks of anthrax on
farms where many animals are exposed to infection immediate
temporary protection can be conferred by the injection of
anthrax serum.

Human Beings. — For many years cases of sudden death had
been observed to occur from time to time among healthy men
engaged in woollen manufactories, particularly in the work of
sorting or combing wool. In some instances death appeared to
be due to the direct inoculation of some poisonous material into
the body, for a form of malignant pustule was observed upon
the skin; but, on the other hand, in not a few cases without any
external manifestation, symptoms of blood-poisoning, often
proving rapidly fatal, suggested the probability of other channels
for the introduction of the disease. In 1880 the occurrence of
several such cases among woolsorters at Bradford, reported
by Dr J. H. Bell of that town, led to an official inquiry in England
by the Local Government Board, and an elaborate investigation
into the pathology of what was then called " woolsorters' disease "
was at the same time conducted at the Brown Institution, London,
by Professor W. S. Greenfield. Among the results of this inquiry
it was ascertained: (1) that the disease appeared to be identical
with that occurring among sheep and cattle; (2) that in the blood
and tissues of the body was found in abundance, as in the disease
in animals, the Bacillus anthracis, and (3) that the skins, hair,
wool, &c, of animals dying of anthrax retain this infecting
organism, which, under certain conditions, finds ready access
to the bodies of the workers.

Two well-marked forms of this disease in man are recognized,
" external anthrax " and " internal anthrax." In external
anthrax the infecting agent is accidentally inoculated into some
portion of skin, the seat of a slight abrasion, often the hand,
arm or face. A minute swelling soon appears at the part, and
develops into a vesicle containing serum or bloody matter,
and varying in size, but seldom larger than a shilling. This
vesicle speedily bursts and leaves an ulcerated or sloughing

io8

ANTHROPOID APES— ANTHROPOLOGY

surface, lound about which are numerous smaller vesicles which
undergo similar changes, and the whole affected part becomes
hard and tender, while the surrounding surface participates
in the inflammatory action, and the neighbouring lymphatic
glands are also inflamed. This condition, termed " malignant
pustule," is frequently accompanied with severe constitutional
disturbance, in the form of fever, delirium, perspirations, together
with great prostration and a tendency to death from septicaemia,
although on the other hand recovery is not uncommon. It
was repeatedly found that the matter taken from the vesicle
during the progress of the disease, as well as the blood in the
body after death, contained the Bacillus dnthracis, and when
inoculated into small animals produced rapid death, with all
the symptoms and post-mortem appearances characteristic of
the disease as known to affect them.

In internal anthrax there is no visible local manifestation
of the disease, and the spores or bacilli appear to gain access
to the system from the air charged with them, as in rooms where
the contaminated wool or hair is unpacked, or again during
the process of sorting. The symptoms usually observed are those
of rapid physical prostration, with a small pulse, somewhat
lowered temperature (rarely fever), and quickened breathing.
Examination of the chest reveals inflammation .of the lungs and
pleura. In some cases death takes place by collapse in less
than one day, while in others the fatal issue is postponed for
three or four days, and is preceded by symptoms of blood-
poisoning, including rigors, perspirations, extreme exhaustion,
&c. In some cases of internal anthrax the symptoms are more
intestinal than pulmonary, and consist in severe exhausting
diarrhoea, with vomiting and rapid sinking. Recovery from
the internal variety, although not unknown, is more rare than
from the external, and its most striking phenomena are its sudden
onset in the midst of apparent health, the rapid development
of physical prostration, and its tendency to a fatal termination
despite treatment. The post-mortem appearances in internal
anthrax are such as are usually observed in septicaemia, but in
addition evidence of extensive inflammation of the lungs, pleura
and bronchial glands has in most cases been met with. The
blood and other fluids and the diseased tissues are found loaded
with the Bacillus anthracis.

Treatment in this disease appears to be of but little avail,
except as regards the external form, where the malignant pustule
may be excised or dealt with early by strong caustics to destroy
the affected textures. For the relief of the general constitutional
symptoms, quinine, stimulants and strong nourishment appear
to be the only available means. An anti-anthrax serum has
also been tried. As preventive measures in woollen manu-
factories, the disinfection of suspicious material, or the wetting
of it before handling, is recommended as lessening the risk to
the workers. (J. Mac.)

ANTHROPOID APES, or Manlike Apes, the name given to
the family of the Simiidae, because, of all the ape-world, they
most closely resemble man. This family includes four kinds,
the gibbons of S. E. Asia, the orangs of Borneo and Sumatra,
the gorillas of W. Equatorial Africa, and the chimpanzees of
W. and Central Equatorial Africa. Each of these apes resembles
man most in some one physical characteristic: the gibbons
in the formation of the teeth, the orangs in the brain-structure,
the gorillas in size, and the chimpanzees in the sigmoid flexure of
the spine. In general structure they all closely resemble human
beings, as in the absence of tails; in their semi-erect position
(resting on finger-tips or knuckles); in the shape of vertebral
column, sternum and pelvis; in the adaptation of the arms
for turning the palm uppermost at will; in the possession of Si
long vermiform appendix to the short caecum of the intestine;
in the size of the cerebral hemispheres and the complexity of
their convolutions. They differ in certain respects, as in the pro-
portion of the limbs, in the bony development of the eyebrow
ridges, and in the opposable great toe, which fits the foot to be
a climbing and grasping organ.

Man differs from them in the absence of a hairy coat; in the
development of a large lobule to the external ear; in his fully

erect attitude; in his flattened foot with the non -opposable
great toe; in the straight limb-bones; in the wider pelvis;
in the marked sigmoid flexure of his spine; in the perfection
of the muscular movements of the arm; in the delicacy of hand;
in the smallness of the canine teeth and other dental peculiarities;
in the development of a chin; and in the small size of his jaws
compared to the relatively great size of the cranium. Together
with man and the baboons, the anthropoid apes form the group
known to science as Catarhini, those, that is, possessing a
narrow nasal septum, and are thus easily distinguishable from
the flat-nosed monkeys or Platyrhini. The anthropoid apes are
arboreal and confined to the Old World. They are of special
interest from the important place assigned to them in the
arguments of Darwin and the Evolutionists. It is generally
admitted now that no fundamental anatomical difference can
be proved to exist between these higher apes and man, but it
is equally agreed that none probably of the Simiidae is in the
direct line of human ancestry . There is a great gap to be bridged
between the highest anthropoid and the lowest man, and much
importance has been attached to the discovery of an extinct
primate, Pithecanthropus (q.v.), which has been regarded as
the " missing link."

See Huxley's Man's Place in Nature (1863);" Robt. Hartmann's
Anthropoid Apes (1883; London, 1885); A. H. Keane's Ethnology
(1896); Darwin's Descent of Man (1871; pop. ed., 1901); Haeckel's
Anthropogeny (Leipzig, 1874, 1903; Paris, 1877; Eng. ed., 1883);
W. H. Flower and Rich. Lydekker, Mammals Living and Extinct
(London, 1.891).

ANTHROPOLOGY (Gr. avOpoiTos man, and \6yos, theory or
science), the science which, in its strictest sense, has as its
object the study of man as a unit in the animal kingdom. It is
distinguished from ethnology, which is devoted to the study of
man as a racial unit, and from ethnography, which deals with
the distribution of the races formed by the aggregation of such
units. To anthropology, however, in its more general sense. as
the natural history of man, ethnology and ethnography may
both be considered to belong, being related as parts to a whole.

Various other sciences, in conformity with the above definition,
must be regarded as subsidiary to anthropology, which yet hold
their own independent places in the field of knowledge. Thus
anatomy and physiology display the structure and functions of
the human body, while psychology investigates the operations
of the human mind. Philology deals with the general principles
of language, as well as with the relations between the languages
of particular races and nations. Ethics or moral science treats
of man's duty or rules of conduct toward his fellow-men. Soci-
ology and the science of culture are concerned with the origin
and development of arts and sciences, opinions, beliefs, customs,
laws and institutions generally among mankind within historic
time; while beyond the historical limit the study is continued
by inferences from relics of early ages and remote districts, to
interpret which is the task of pre-historic archaeology and
geology.

I. Man's Place in Nature. — In 1843 Dr J. C. Prichard, who
perhaps of all others merits the title of founder of modern
anthropology, wrote in his Natural History of Man: —

" The organized world presents no contrasts and resemblances
more remarkable than those which we discover on comparing man-
kind with the inferior tribes. That creatures should exist so nearly
approaching to each other in all the particulars of their physical
structure, and yet differing so immeasurably in their endowments
and capabilities, would be a fact hard to believe, if it were not
manifest to our observation. The differences are everywhere
striking: the resemblances are less obvious in the fulness of their
extent, and they are never contemplated without wonder by those
who, in the study of anatomy and physiology, are first made aware
how near is man in his physical constitution to the brutes. In all
the principles of his internal structure, in the composition and
functions of his parts, man is but an animal. The lord of the earth,
who contemplates the eternal order of the universe, and aspires to
communion with its invisible Maker, is a being composed of the
same materials, and framed on the same principles, as the creatures
which he has tamed to be the servile instruments of his willj or slays
for his daily food. The points of resemblance are innumerable;
they extend to the most recondite arrangements of that mechanism
which maintains instrumentally the physical life of the body, which

ANTHROPOLOGY

109

brings forward its early development and admits, after a given period,
its decay, and by means of which is prepared a succession of similar
beings destined to perpetuate the race.'

The acknowledgment of man's structural similarity with the
anthropomorphous species nearest approaching him, viz.: the
higher or anthropoid apes, had long before Prichard's day-
been made by Linnaeus, who in his Systema Naturae (1735)
grouped them together as the highest order of Mammalia, to
which he gave the name of Primates. The Amoenitates Aca-
demicae (vol. vi., Leiden, 1764), published under the auspices of
Linnaeus, contains a remarkable picture which illustrates a
discourse by his disciple Hoppius, and is here reproduced (see
Plate, fig. 1). In this picture, which shows the crudeness of the
zoological notions current in the 18th century as to both men
and apes, there are set in a row four figures: (a) a recognizable
orang-utan, sitting and holding a staff; (b) a chimpanzee,
absurdly humanized as to head, hands, and feet; (c) a hairy
woman, with a tail a foot long; (d) another woman, more
completely coated with hair. The great Swedish naturalist was
possibly justified in treating the two latter creatures as quasi-
human, for they seem to be grotesque exaggerations of such
tailed and hairy human beings as really, though rarely, occur,
and are apt to be exhibited as monstrosities (see Bastian and
Hartmann, Zeitschrift filr Ethnologie, Index, " Geschwaiizte
Menschen "; Gould and Pile, Anomalies and Curiosities of
Medicine, 1897). To Linnaeus, however, they represented normal
anthropomorpha or man-like creatures, vouched for by visitors
to remote parts of the world. This opinion of the Swedish
naturalist seems to have been little noticed in Great Britain till
it was taken up by the learned but credulous Scottish judge,
Lord Monboddo (see his Origin and Progress of Language, 1774,
&c; Antient Metaphysics, 1778). He had not heard of the
tailed men till he met with them in the work of Linnaeus, with
whom he entered into correspondence, with the result that he
enlarged his range of mankind with races of sub-human type.
One was founded on the description by the Swedish sailor
Niklas Koping of the ferocious men with long tails inhabiting
the Nicobar Islands. Another comprised the orang-utans of
Sumatra, who were said to take men captive and set them to
work as slaves. One of these apes, it was related, served as a
sailor on board a Jamaica ship, and used to wait on the captain.
These are stories which seem to carry their own explanation.
When the Nicobar Islands were taken over by the British
government two centuries later, the native warriors were still
wearing their peculiar loin-cloth hanging behind in a most taiU
like manner (E. H. Man, Journal Anthropological Institute, vol.
xv. p. 442). As for the story of the orang-utan cabin boy, this
may even be verbally true, it being borne in mind that in the
Malay languages the term orang-utan, " man of the forest," was
originally used for inland for:st natives and other rude men,
rather than for the miyas apes to which it has come to be generally
applied by Europeans. The speculations as to primitive man
connected with these stories diverted the British public, headed
by Dr Johnson, who said that Monboddo was " as jealous of his
tail as a squirrel." Linnaeus's primarily zoological classification
of man did not, however, suit the philosophical opinion of the
time, which responded more readily to the systems represented
by Buffon, and later by Cuvier, in which the human mind and
soul formed an impassable wall of partition between him and
other mammalia, so that the definition of man's position in the
animal world was treated as not belonging to zoology, but to
metaphysics and theology. It has to be borne in mind that
Linnaeus, plainly as he recognized the likeness of the higher
simian and the human types, does not seem to have entertained
the thought of accounting for this similarity by common descent.
It satisfied his mind to consider it as belonging to the system of
nature, as indeed remained the case with a greater anatomist of
the following century, Richard Owen. The present drawing,
which under the authority of Linnaeus shows an anthropo-
morphic series from which the normal type of man, the Homo
sapiens, is conspicuously absent, brings zoological similarity into
view without suggesting kinship to account for it. There are few

ideas more ingrained in ancient and low civilization than that of
relationship by descent between the lower animals and man.
Savage' and barbaric religions recognize it, and the mythology
of the world has hardly a more universal theme. But in educated
Europe such ideas had long been superseded by the influence of
theology and philosophy, with which they seemed too incom-
patible. In the 19th century, however, Lamarck's theory of the
development of new species by habit and circumstance led
through Wallace and Darwin to the doctrines of the hereditary
transmission of acquired characters, the survival of the fittest,
and natural selection. Thenceforward it was impossible to
exclude a theory of descent of man from ancestral beings whom
zoological similarity connects also, though by lines of descent
not at all clearly defined, with ancestors of the anthropomorphic
apes. In one form or another such a theory of human descent
has in our time become part of an accepted framework of zbology,
if not as a demonstrable truth, at any rate as a working hypothesis
which has no effective rival.

The new development from Linnaeus's zoological scheme
which has thus ensued appears in Huxley's diagram of simian
and human skeletons (fig. 2, (a) gibbon; (b) orang; (c) chim-
panzee; (d) gorilla; (e) man). Evidently suggested by the
Linnean picture, this is brought up to the modern level of
zoology, and continued on to man, forming an introduction to
his zoological history hardly to be surpassed. Some of the main
points it illustrates may be briefly stated here, the reader' being
referred for further information to Huxley's Essays. In tracing
the osteological characters of apes and man through this series,
the general system of the skeletons, and the close correspondence
in number and arrangement of vertebrae and ribs, as well as in
the teeth, go far towards justifying the opinion of hereditary
connexion. At the same time, the comparison brings into view
differences in human structure adapted to man's pre-eminent
mode of life, though hardly to be accounted its chief causes.
It may be seen how the arrangement of limbs suited for going
on all-fours belongs rather to the apes than to man, and walking
on the soles of the feet rather to man than the apes. The two
modes of progression overlap in human life, but the child's
tendency when learning is to rest on the soles of the feet and the
palms of the hands, unlike the apes, which support themselves
on the sides of the feet and the bent knuckles of the hands. With
regard to climbing, the long stretch of arm and the grasp with
both hands and feet contribute to the arboreal life of the apes,
contrasting with what seem the mere remains of the climbing
habit to be found even among forest savages. On the whole,
man's locomotive limbs are not so much specialized to particular
purposes, as generalized into adaptation to many ends. As to the
mechanical conditions of the human body, the upright posture
has always been recognized as the chief. To it contributes tne
balance of the skull on the cervical vertebrae, while the human
form of the pelvis provides the necessary support to the intestines
in the standing attitude. The marked curvature of the vertebral
column, by breaking the shock to the neck and head in running
and leaping, likewise favours the erect position. The lowest
coccygeal vertebrae of man remain as a rudimentary tail. While
it is evident that high importance must be attached to the
adaptation of the human body to the life of diversified intelligence
and occupation he has to lead, this must not be treated as though
it were the principal element of the superiority of man, whose
comparison with all lower genera of mammals must be mainly
directed to the intellectual organ, the brain. Comparison of the
brains of vertebrate animals (see Brain) brings into view the
immense difference between the small, smooth brain of a fish or
bird and the large and convoluted organ in man. In man, botn
size and complexity contribute to the increased area of the
cortex or outer layer of the brain, which has been fully ascertained
to be the seat of the mysterious processes by which sensation
furnishes the groundwork of thought. Schafer (Textbook of
Physiology, vol. ii. p. 697) thus defines it: " The cerebral cortex
is the seat of the intellectual functions, of intelligent sensation
or consciousness, of ideation, of volition, and of memory."

The relations between man and ape are most readily stated in

ANTHROPOLOGY

comparison with the gorilla, as on the whole the most anthropo-
morphous ape. In the general proportions of the body and limbs
there is a marked difference between the gorilla and man. The
gorilla's brain-case is smaller, its trunk larger, its lower limbs
shorter, its upper limbs longer in proportion than those of man.
The differences between a gorilla's skull and a man's are truly
immense. In the gorilla, the face, formed largely by the massive
jaw-bones, predominates over the brain-case or cranium; in the
man these proportions are reversed. In man the occipital
foramen, through which passes the spinal cord, is placed just
behind the centre of the base of the skull, which is thus evenly
balanced in the erect posture, whereas the gorilla, which goes
habitually on all fours, and whose skull is inclined forward, in
accordance with this posture has the foramen farther back. In
man the surface of the skull is comparatively smooth, and the
brow-ridges project but little, while in the gorilla these ridges
overhang the cavernous orbits like penthouse roofs. The absolute
capacity of the cranium of the gorilla is far less than that of man;
the smallest adult human cranium hardly measuring less than 63
cub. in., while the largest gorilla cranium measured had a content
of only 34j cub. in. The largest proportional size of the facial
bones, and the great projection of the jaws, confer on the gorilla's
skull its small facial angle and brutal character, while its teeth differ
from man's in relative size and number of fangs. Comparing the
lengths of the extremities, it is seen that the gorilla's arm is of
enormous length, in fact about one-sixth longer than the spine,
whereas a man's arm is one-fifth shorter than the spine; both
hand and foot are proportionally much longer in the gorilla than
in man; the leg does not so much differ. The vertebral column
of the gorilla differs from that of man in its curvature and other
characters, as also does the conformation of its narrow pelvis.
The hand of the gorilla corresponds essentially as to bones and
muscles with that of man, but is clumsier and heavier; its thumb
is " opposable " like a human thumb, that is, it can easily meet
with its extremity the extremities of the other fingers, thus
possessing a character which does much to make the human hand
so admirable an instrument; but the gorilla's thumb is pro-
portionately shorter than man's. The foot of the higher apes,
though often spoken of as a hand, is anatomically not such, but
a prehensile foot. It has been argued by Sir Richard Owen and
others that the position of the great toe converts the foot of the
higher apes into a hand, an extremely important distinction from
man; but against this Professor T. H. Huxley maintained that
it has the characteristic structure of a foot with a very movable
great toe. The external unlikeness of the apes to man depends
much on their hairiness, but this and some other characteristics
have no great zoological value. No doubt the difference between
man and the apes depends, of all things, on the relative size and
organization of the brain. While similar as to their general
arrangement to the human brain, those of the higher apes, such
as the chimpanzee, are much less complex in their convolutions,
as well as much less in both absolute and relative weight — the
weight of a gorilla's brain hardly exceeding 20 oz., and a man's
brain hardly weighing less than 32 oz., although the gorilla is
considerably the larger animal of the two.

These anatomical distinctions are undoubtedly of great moment,
and it is an interesting question whether they suffice to place man
in a zoological order by himself. It is plain that some eminent
zoologists, regarding man as absolutely differing as to mind and
spirit from any other animal, have had their discrimination of
mere bodily differences unconsciously sharpened, and have been
led to give differences, such as in the brain or even the foot of
the apes and man, somewhat more importance than if they had
merely distinguished two species of apes. Many naturalists hold
the opinion that the anatomical differences which separate the
gorilla or chimpanzee from man are in some respects less than
those which separate these man-like apes from apes lower in the
scale. Yet all authorities class both the higher and lower apes
in the same order. This is Huxley's argument, some prominent
points of which are the following: As regards the proportion of
limbs, the hylobates or gibbon is as much longer in the arms than
the gorilla as the gorilla is than the man, while on the other hand,

it is as much longer in the legs than the man as the man is than
the gorilla. As to the vertebral column and pelvis, the lower
apes differ from the gorilla as much as, or more than, it differs
from man. As to the capacity of the cranium, men differ from
one another so extremely that the largest known human skull
holds nearly twice the measure of the smallest, a larger proportion
than that in which man surpasses the gorilla; while, with proper
allowance for difference of size of the various species, it appears
that some of the lower apes fall nearly as much below the higher
apes. The projection of the muzzle, which gives the character
of brutality to the gorilla as distinguished from the man, is yet
further exaggerated in the lemurs, as is also the backward position
of the occipital foramen. In characters of such importance as the
structure of the hand and foot, the lower apes diverge extremely
from the gorilla; thus the thumb ceases to be opposable in the
American monkeys, and in the marmosets is directed forwards,
and armed with a curved claw like the other digits, the great
toe in these latter being insignificant in proportion. The same
argument can be extended to other points of anatomical structure,
and, what is of more consequence, it appears true of the brain.
A series of the apes, arranged from lower to higher orders, shows
gradations from a brain little higher that that of a rat, to a brain
like a small and imperfect imitation of a man's; and the greatest
structural break in the series lies not between man and the man-
like apes, but between the apes and monkeys on one side, and the
lemurs on the other. On these grounds Huxley, restoring in
principle the Linnean classification, desired to include man in the
order of Primates. This order he divided into seven families:
first, the Anthropini, consisting of man only; second, the Catarhini
or Old World apes; third, the Platyrhini, all New World apes,
except the marmosets; fourth, the Arclopithecini, or marmosets;
fifth, the Lemurini, or lemurs; sixth and seventh, the Cheiromyini
and Galeopithecini.

It is in assigning to man his place in nature on psychological
grounds that the greater difficulty arises. Huxley acknowledged
an immeasurable and practically infinite divergence, ending in
the present enormous psychological gulf between ape and man.
It is difficult to account for this intellectual chasm as due to
some minor structural difference. The opinion is deeply rooted
in modern as in ancient thought, that only a distinctively human
element of the highest import can account for the severance
between man and the highest animal below him. Differences in
the mechanical organs, such as the perfection of the human hand
as an instrument, or the adaptability of the human voice to the
expression of human thought, are indeed of great value. But
they have not of themselves such value, that to endow an ape
with the hand and vocal organs of a man would be likely to raise
it through any large part of the interval that now separates it
from humanity. Much more is to be said for the view that man's
larger and more highly organized brain accounts for those mental
powers in which he so absolutely surpasses the brutes.

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